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1、What is Grammar,the whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general,usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology(including inflections)and sometimes also phonology and semantics.-Oxford online dictionary,Simpler put:,Grammar is the system of a language.People sometimes de
2、scribe grammar as the rules of a language;but in fact no language has rules.If we use the word rules,we suggest that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language,like a new game.But languages did not start like that.Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words,p
3、hrases and sentences.No commonly-spoken language is fixed.All languages change over time.What we call grammar is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time.,Unit 1:Levels of English GrammarIssues of this unit:Levels of grammar unitsmorpheme,word,phrase,clauses,学习内容预告：本单元之后，请预习：第4、5讲：名词和名
4、词词组、名词属格,The subject of this course:Language system:Sound system,for phonology(音系学)Meaning system,for semantics(语义学)Rule system,for grammar study This course studies the syntactic rules.,Different levels of forms in English:（Discourse Text）SentenceClausePhraseWordMorpheme,A）Morphemes(词素)English morp
5、hemeFree morphemeBound morpheme(自由词素)(粘附词素)e.g.man friende.g.im-y take luck pre-ess(as roots,stems，词根、词干)(as affixes，词缀),Affixes：（词缀的结构分类）1 prefix(前缀)：pre-war,antibody,impossible 2 suffix(后缀)：careful,farmer,nicely,homely3 infix(中缀)：foot feet,statesman,词缀的功能分类：一些词缀是句法性的(syntactic)，如：-ed标示动词的过去时，-s则标示
6、名词的复数或动词第三人称单数等；它们被称为“Inflectional affix(屈折词缀)；其他如：-s-ed-est”另一些词缀则是语义性的(semantic)，例如：-er作为名词词尾，表示“one who”的含义；它们通常被称为“Derivational affix(派生词缀)”,Next,lets look more closely at some examples of stems,affixations and their roles in forming English words.（I have prepared a list of the stems,prefixes an
7、d suffixes of English words,which is in a Word file.If you are interested,you can copy it after class.）,1）Examples of Prefixes:a-,an-/without,lacking,not/asymmetric,apolitical bi-/two/bicycle,bilateral,形式有差异，但意义相同的词缀：（词缀变体，由不同的语音导致的变化）：com-,con-,col-,cor-,co-/together,with/combine contract colleague
8、correspond cooperation,形式相同，但意义不同的词缀：im-,in-,il-,ir-/in,into,on/immigrant,income,illustration,irrigation(通常为名词、动词)im-,in-,il-,ir-/not/impossible,inconvinent,illegal,irresponsible（通常为形容词）,反义词缀：inter-/between/international,interpersonal,intra-,intro-/within/intragroup,introductionsub-/under/submarine,
9、subsonicsuper-/above,greater/supersonic,superpower,反义词缀：macro-/big/macrocontrol,macroeconomy micro-/small/microcontrol,microeconomy,同义、近义词缀：anti-/against/antisocial,antifascist contra-/against/contradiction,contrastcounter-/against/counteract,counterpart,同义、近义词缀：demi-/a half or a part of/demi-god se
10、mi-/half,partly/semiconductor,semifinal,hemispherefore-/before,in front of/forehead,forerunnerpre-/before/prewar,prepare,preschool,2）Examples of Suffixes:有些后缀仅仅具有句法意义：-ness/added to adjectives to form nouns/carelessness,goodness,laziness,-sumption/noun form for verbs ended with-ume/assumption,consum
11、ption,resumptionassume assumption,有些后缀则既有句法意义，也有语义意义：-able,-ible/adj.capable of,fit for/eatable,considerable,sizable,feasible,有些后缀具有不同的意义（例如相反意义）：-er,-or,-eer/n.one who/interviewer,employer,operator,actor,engineer-ee/n.one who(usu.in passive sense)/interviewee,employee,testee,3）Examples of Stems:-an
12、im-/spirit/animal,unanimous-aqua-/water/aquatic sports,aquarium-auto-/self/autobiography,automobile,-cap-,-capit-/head,chief/capital,captain,-dict-/say,speak/dictation,dictionary,contradiction-son-/sound/consonant,resonant,ultrasonic,小贴士：词根的典故：Cesar:Veni,Vidi,Vinci!-ven-,-vent-/come/intervene,preven
13、t,convention-vid-,-vis-/see/visualize,vision,vista-vinc-,-van-/conquer/victory,invincible,vanquish,vanity,Just a small quiz,before we go on:Do you know these words and if not,can you figure out their meanings:netizen ultramodern retrospect transplant,Now lets go to the next level of grammar：the word
14、 level.,B)Words:Types of English Words In terms of function（按功能分）Closed class words(封闭类词，虚词)Open class words(开放类词，实词),Closed class words(function words,封闭类词，虚词)这类词无词形变化，数量小Preposition,pronoun,determiner,conjunction,auxiliaryand in the they shall,Open class words(content words,开放类词，实词)noun,adjective,
15、adverb,main verb,numerals(cardinal,ordinal)这类词有词形变化，数量很大boy boys good bestthree thirty borrow borrowed borrowing,Types of English Words In terms of structure（按结构分）1）simple words（简单词）2）derivative words（派生词）3）compound words（复合词）,1)Simple word（简单词）Also called“morpheme word，单词素词”（不能再分为更小的词素）e.g.:foot,he
16、ad,car,near,by,in,2)Derivatives(派生词)：Formed by:stem+affixese.g.:uncover;harmless;education【e-duc-at-ion】Review:Syntactic affixes:worked,redden,gracefulSemantic affixes:superman,cooker,antibody,须注意：syntactic和semantic的区分不是绝对的，句法性词缀也可能有语义价值：employer vs.employee trainer vs.traineeinterviewer vs.intervie
17、wee而有的语义性词缀也可以有不同的词性：beautiful vs.handfulpsychotic/neurotic antibiotic/army medic,3)Compounds(复合词)：In English,many words are formed by combining two or more words together and these words are called compound words.Content words such as nouns,verbs and adjectives can all be formed in this fashion.,Co
18、mpounding:the combination of different words or word parts to form a new word:A)Compound Nouns:n.+n.workshop,bookshelf,lifesaver,color-film pron.+n.she-wolf,he-bear,he-man n.+v.sunrise,sunset,shoplift,power-cut v.+n.scarecrow,telltale,breakfast,turncoat a.+n.greenhouse,red-tape,busybody,B)Compound A
19、djectives:a.+n.+ed.smooth-tongued,cold-blooded,narrow-minded,high-nosed n.+v.+ed.heart-broken,weather-beaten,home-made,heartfelt,n.+v.+ing.peace-keeping,law-abiding,time-saving,truth-telling,fact-findingn.+a.blood-thirsty,ice-free,snow-white,homesick,a.+n.high-grade,first-class,long-range,new-type,s
20、econd-hand a.+a.bloody-red,bittersweet,dead-alive,white-hot,v.+a.failsafe,diehard,talk-big prep.+n.indoor,overhead,aboveboard,onlinehyphen conj.out-of-door,life-and-death,wait-and-see,C)Compound Verbs:adv.+v.to overtake,to uplift,to uproot,to underline,to downplay,to uploadn.+n.to brainstorm,to stre
21、amline,to dog-ear,to windsurf,to showcase,n.+v.to air-drop,to eavesdrop,to breastfeed,to nose-dive,to masterminda.+v.to safeguard,to whitewash,to blindfold,Just a small quiz,before we go on:Can you figure out the meanings of these compounds:think-tank,kill-joy,apple-polisher half-hearted,honey-mouth
22、ed,far-reaching,ill-fitting to cold-shoulder,to mass-produce,The answer to the quiz:think-tank(智库),kill-joy(扫兴的人/事),apple-polisher(马屁精)half-hearted(不热心的),honey-mouthed(甜言蜜语的),far-reaching(影响深远的),ill-fitting(不合身的)to cold-shoulder(让吃闭门羹),to mass-produce(规模化生产/批量生产),Other patterns of word formation：The
23、re are also other ways to form English words,which constitute several patterns of English word-formation.Next,lets take a look at these patterns.,Pattern I.Phrase-hyphen,most of the words formed this way are adjectives:a damned-if-they-do,damned-if-they-dont choice a not-so-strong team;the no-war,no
24、-peace stalemate;the cards-on-the-table approach;the ends-justify-means philosophy;Also nouns,such as：forget-me-not,Pattern II.Conversions,the shift of the parts of speech of a word:n.v.to knife,to house,to water,to eyeball,to wine and dinev.n.give somebody a push,this years pick,a cheat,to give it
25、a rethinka.n.the old,the rich,the accused,through thick and thin,Pattern III.Blending,the merge of word parts to form a new word:head+ending:smog,motel,heliport,brunch word+ending:workaholic,lunarnaut head+word:medicare,psywar,cyberpolice head+head:comsat,Amerind,Pattern IV.Clipping,removing some pa
26、rt of a word to make it shorter while keeping the meaning:A:tail-clipping:ad,lab,math,gym,biz,bikeB:head-clipping:shute,phon,plane,quakeC:head and tail clipping:fridge,flu,tec,Pattern V.Acronym,the formation of a new word from the initial letters of a phrase:radar:radio detecting and ranging laser:l
27、ight-wave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation AIDS:acquired immunity deficiency syndrome 知道这些词是哪些词的缩写吗：UFO,UNESCO,VIP,WHO,NATO,OPEC,ASEAN,Pattern VI.Formation of words from proper nouns:watt,hertz,volt,ampere,champagne,waterloo,water-gate,xerox,Reaganomics,Thatcherism to clinton to lew
28、enski,Next,lets go to the next level of grammar：the phrase level.,C)Phrases(短语、词组)Phrases of English NPVP AdjP AdvP PrepP“P”means“phrase”.,1.NP(noun phrase 名词短语)：中心语为名词(det.)+(modifier)+Noun+(modifier)e.g.:a lazy boy still asleep the earthquake of Richter magnitude 7 with the epicenter at Yaan the h
29、ottest hotpot that I have ever tasted since I came to Sichuan,NPs that might be misinterpreted：dead president sweat water blind date handwriting on the wall dry goods,NPs that might be misinterpreted：dead president：美钞 sweat water：淡水 blind date：男女初次会面（他人安排）handwriting on the wall：不祥之兆 dry goods：(美)纺织
30、品；(英)谷物,2.VP(verb phrase 动词短语)：中心语为动词 simple VP:Main Verb+(modifier)e.g.:I hate English grammar plex VP:Auxiliary+Main Verb+(mod.)e.g.:I slept away the class.I would have been to Wenchuan as a volunteer worker,if I had not had to go to school now.,Finite VP:(affected by tense,or person)e.g.:The boy
31、eats the stone.The boy ate the stone.The boys have eaten the stone.Infinite VP:(unaffected by tense,or person)e.g.:You are the last person I want to see.Kissed by mosquitoes,I feel/felt itchy.,VPs that might be misinterpreted：to pull ones legto bring down the houseto knock ones socks offHe is easily
32、 taken in.See the following page for the answers.,VPs that might be misinterpreted：to pull ones leg：开某人的玩笑to bring down the house：震耳欲聋的声响to pull up ones socks：鼓起勇气He is easily taken in.：他极易上当受骗。,3.AdjP(adjective phrase 形容词短语)：(modifier)+Adjective+(compliment)e.g.:The College Entrance Examinations of
33、 this year were extremely easy.English grammar learning is too boring to be enjoyable.I am more than happy to accept your invitation to dinner.,4.AdvP(adverb phrase 副词短语)：(modifier)+Adverb+(modifier)e.g.:We live far away from downtown Chengdu.Good table manner means that you have to eat in such a wa
34、y that no noise emits.,5.PrepP(prepositional phrase 介词短语)：(modifier)+preposition+compliment e.g.:Dont be a giant of words,but a dwarf of deeds.Boys revolve around girls,just like the Earth around the Sun.,D)Clauses and Sentences:Theoretically,a sentence a clause,because a sentence can be formed by t
35、wo or more clauses.However,in many cases,a clause can be a sentence.For instance:“I know it”is an independent,simple clause,but it is also a simple sentence.,A sentence(and clause)has a structure of“subject+predicate”.Types of clauses:1)Independent Clause vs.Dependent Clause:I know it.vs.You know th
36、at I know it.2)Main Clause vs.Subordinate Clause:The police says that the driver license I have is a fake.,Sentences are generally the highest unit studied by grammarians.Types of sentences:1)Full sentence vs.Minor sentence(不完全句)A:“How are you today?”B:“Living!”Referee:“On your marks!Ready!Go!”,Simp
37、le,compound,complex sentences:Compound sentence(复合句，并列句)：I dont agree with you,but Ill give my life to defend your right of saying it.Complex sentence(复杂句)：What the teachers told us in school is not the same as what it is in the society.,这个句子是什么句：One more step forward,and you are dead!Compound-complex sentence：We dont care what your say,but what you do.,This is the end of Lecture One.Please preview:第4、5讲：名词、名词属格,
