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1、婚礼备程序及细节大全Introduction I. Why do we have such course? English literature is one of the compulsory and most important courses. However, the English literature courses offered are merely taught at the level of learning general information and developing literal understanding. Admittedly, such courses
2、help them/yu a lot in their/your acquisition of the English language. But the function of English literature reaches far beyond that. In reading English literature, a student should have the power to discern how human beings translate their experience into artistic expression and representation; how
3、 writers, through their creative impulses, convey to us their insights into human destiny and human life; and how social concern is involved in a specific form of human imagination. In addition, students should elevate to the level of cultivating a curiosity for the unknown, thinking cogently and lo
4、gically, expressing themselves clearlyand concisely, and observing the world around them critically and objectively. But most students are still at a loss as to how they can effectivelyanalyze a literary work by themselves in any of these respects, even though they have read plenty of excerpts from
5、representative works in the British and American literary canon. And they tend to have little idea what role the beginning part plays in the whole story, how the plot develops and comes to resolution, in what way point of view determines a readers understanding of the story, and how the images and s
6、ymbols are related to the theme. Upon consideration of these factors, we have such course with the intention of cultivating both studen literary sensibilities and their /your critical power when reading English short stories and novels. II. Introduction about reading a story 1. What is StoryYes oh,
7、dear, yesthe novel tells a story. This is Forsters remark, which is worth special attention, for he is someone in the trade and with rich experience. In his Aspects of the Novel he lists story as the first aspect. People reading novels for stories usually ask questions like what happened next? and a
8、nd what would he do next? These questions attest to the two basic elements of a story. The one is the event and the other the time. A story is a series of happenings arranged in the natural temporal order as they occur. Story is the basis of the novel, and indeed the basis of narrative wors of all i
9、nds. 2. The structure and functions of a story Plot; character; point of view; theme; style 3. What is Fiction? Fiction, the general term for invented stories, now usually applied to novels, short stories, novella, romances, fables, and other narrative works in prose, even though most plays and narr
10、ative poems are also fictional. (P. 83. Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms) 4. The Story and the Novel To read novels for story is nothing wrong, but nothing professional either. One mark of a second-rate mind is to be always telling stories. The remark by the French writer jean de La Bruere (1645
11、1696) is also true of the reader. If the purpose of the novel is only to tell stories, it could as well remain unborn, for newspapers and history boos are sufficient to satisfy peoples desire for stories about both present and past, and even about future. In fact, many newapapermen have been dissati
12、sfied with their job of reporting and come into the field of novel writing. Defoe, Dicens, Joyce, Hemingway and Camus were among the most famous and the most successful converts. Even historians may feel obliged to do more than mere stories or facts. Edward Gibborns Decline and Fall of the Roman Emp
13、ire is praised not only for its multitudinous facts and rationalistic analysis, but more for its beauty of narrative style. In telling stories,the novelist aims at something higher or he intends to add something to the mere facts. As indicated in the definition of the novel, what makes a novel is th
14、e novelists style (personalized presentation of the story) and interpretation of the story. Chapter One PloI. What is Plot? 1. According to Aristotle what are the six elements of the structure of tragedy? Traged as a whole has just six constituent elements and they are plot, characters, verbal expre
15、ssion, thought, visual adornment, and songcomposition. For the elements by which they imitate are two (verbal expression and songcomposition), the manner in which they imitate is one (visual adornment), the things they imitate are three (plot, characters, thought), and there is nothing more beyond t
16、hese. 2. What is Plot under the pens of modern novelists and storytellers? And how to understand Plotin a storyppt: he queen died, no one new why, until it was discovered that it was through grief at the death of the ing.P. 6 It suspends the time-sequence, it moves as far away from the story as its
17、limitations will allow.) The story and the character alone can not make a novel ye. To make a novel, a plot is prerequisite. A loo at the example suggested by E.M. Forster will help to distinguish between the story and the plot. The ing died and then the queen died is not a plot, but a story. If we
18、make it The ing died and then the queen died of grief,we have a plot. This causal phrase of grief indicates our interpretation and thus arrangement of the happenings. In the world of reality events take place one after another in the natural temporal order, but in the world of fiction it is the nove
19、lists design that one particular event occur after another particular event. The very word plot implies the novelists rebellion against the natural law and his endeavor to mae meanings out of the happenings that may otherwise be meaningless. The happenings may or may not be real happenings.(So what
20、plot -) A plot is a particular arrangement of happenings in a novel that is aimed at revealing their causal relationships or at conveying the novelistideas. A plot is sometimes called a story line. The most important of the traditional plot is that it should be a complete or unified action, that is,
21、 something with a beginning, a middle, and an end. 3. The dramatic situation in a story. 4. The three parts of a plot: a beginning (exposition), a middle (suspense or a series of suspense .foreshadowin crisis a moment of high tension), and an end(a climax, the moment of greatest tensionthe conclusio
22、nfalling action, resolution or denouement). Plot a beginning a middle an end exposition some other events climax (the moment (suspense, a series of suspense, of greatest tension, foreshadowing, crisis) the conclusion-falling action, resolution or denouement) II. Read the stories of Rip Van Winkle(Wa
23、shington Irving) and David Swa (Nathaniel Hawthorne) III. Questions: (Finish reading the two stories and point out the plots of the two stories, the descriptive details, the exposition, characters) Rip Van Winkle 1. Descriptive details: the plot of the story? 2. What part of the story seems like the
24、 exposition 3. Where does the dramatic conflict? 4. What is the climax of the story? David Swan 5. the plot of the story 6. How fully does the author draw the characters in the story? (Character traits are the qualities of a characters personality. They are revealed through a characters actions and
25、words and through description). 7. More wors to do: something about the writers of the two stories. Chapter Two Character In the introduction we have said that fiction is an image of people in action, moving towards an undeclared end. Thus character is always involved in fiction, even in the story o
26、f the simplest action. Sometimes character is at the center of our interest because in character we may see man facets of the people we meet in our daily life and even of ourselves. Fictional character is always character in action and the character gets into action because it is caught in a situati
27、on of conflict and he/she is always provided with motivation: he/she has sufficient reasons to act or behave as he /she does. The character is doing something and the reader while reading fiction wants to know the why as well as the what of the affairs. (Sometimes a characters motive for an action i
28、s not explained on acceptable grounds, for example, the villain in Adgar Allan PoestoryThe Tell-Tale Heart, and thus the reader feels cheated. In this case, the writer of detective fiction who makes the criminal a mere lunatic has cheated the reader b avoiding the problem of motive.) And generally,
29、the action itself is humanly significant and it ends usually in a shift in or clarification of human values, as displayed in John UpdikA & P, and the motivation of a character in a storyone of the answers to the question whyis of fundamental importance. I. What is Character? Closely related with the
30、 story is the character. Henry James said, “What is character but the determination of incident? What is incident but the illustration of character? (The Art of Fiction) When we read a novel, we read about our fellow beings, and that is one of the motives in reading at all. The “fellow beings” in th
31、e novel is termed characters. By “fellow beings” is meant not only “human beings” but also “other beings,” such as animals. George Orwell uses animals to represent human beings in his novel nimal Farm. Lewis Carrol creates many lovelyanimals in his lices Adventures in Wonderlandthat appeal to both c
32、hildren and adults. Orwell does not intend to convince the reader that animals can speak human language or that he is a translator between animals and humans. No sensible reader, after reading Orwells Animal Farm, would go to the pigsty to look for a talking boar. This proves the agreed-on fictional
33、ity of characters in novels. So broadly, a character is an invented personality to resemble but never to equaa real person in life. It is not difficult to see that characters in novels resemble people in real life in many ways. They have names used in the same way ours are used, they have hatred and
34、 love, and they have desires and fears. Above all, they act the way we act or the way we can understand (like or dislike). But we must bear in mind that the characters are not real persons, but merely inventions, however ingenious. Compare the physical life and spiritual life of the characters and o
35、urs. We have to answer the natures call several times a day, but characters seldom do this, even in the most realistic or naturalistic novels. We have to live our life hour by hour and day by day, but characters never do this. They choose to live some time more fully than others, and are able to ski
36、p over periods on ten months or twenty years without seeming weird, a feat which we can never attempt. In our life, our minds are a gray matter even to scientists. We can not ow what is going on in others mind. But in novels, the minds of the characters are open or can be made open to the reader if
37、the novelist so chooses. The reader does not only see their clothes, but also see their minds. One character may be enemy to other characters, but he is friend to the reader, before whom he can think aloud, to borrow Emersons words. Characters do not live, but act. When we watch actors speak aloud t
38、o themselves on the stage as if they were alone, we know they are acting and they are different from what they represent in real life. The characters in novels exist in a similar manner. II. Kinds of Characters Usually, a novel has more than one character. They interact with each other and make up t
39、he story. But they are not equally important or have the same function to the novelist. By their roles in the novel, the characters can be grouped as heroes, main characters and minor characters, and foils. The character on whom a novel is called the hero or heroine when it is a female character. Th
40、e word hero originally refers to a man, in mythology and legend, often of divine ancestry, who is endowed with great courage and strength, celebrated for his hold exploits, and favored by the gods. In the novel, the word “hero” is freed of such noble requirements and any central characters can be la
41、beled as heroes. Jonathan Wild is the hero in the novel of the same name b Henry Fielding, though he is a notorious highwayman. Some critics, annoyed by the connotation of “hero,” prefer the word “protagonist,” which sounds neutral. The enemy or rival of the protagonist is called antagonistThe main
42、or major characters are those in close and dynamic relation with the hero or heroine. Close relation does not mean good relation. Pablo in For Whom the Bell Tolls is constantly finding trouble with the hero Jordan, yet he is a main character as his wife Pilar is. Minor characters are those in remote
43、 and static relation with the hero. It is wrong to thinthat minor characters are all unimportant. In some novels, one or some of the minor characters may serve a critical role, structurally or interpretationally. Foil characters are ones that help enhance the intensity of the hero by strengthening o
44、r contrasting. They may be main characters or minor characters. In a word, they serve as foils to the hero or heroine. Cohn in The Sun Also Rises is a good example. He is one of the main characters. Like Jae, he is also lost, trying vainly to escape the past by courting women and drining. But during
45、 their stay in Spain, Cohn displays qualities in contrast to those cherished by Jake, which maes Jae realize his own problems and finally find a solution, though temporarily. Cohn works mainly by contrast. Wilson in The Great Gatsb works by presenting. Gatsby lost his lover to Tom and Wilson lost hi
46、s wife to Tom. By presenting Wilsons case the novelistintens to point out the profound cause of Gatsbys tragedy. Dr. Watson in the stories of Sherloc Holmes serves as a foil to the hero, rendering the detective smarter than he would otherwise appear to the reader. By the degree of their development,
47、 characters can be grouped as round characters and flat characters. This division is proposed by E.M Forster. Round characters are fully developed while flat characters are not. Or we can say that round characters grow while flat characters do not. Usually the reader is allowed access to the inner l
48、ife of the round character and permitted to learn about many sides of the round character. The flat character is a closed character to whose inner thoughts the reader is denied access. Usually one side of the flat character is shown in the novel. Most heroes are round characters who grow emotionally
49、 or spiritually. Chapter Three Theme Aristotle in Poetics lists six basic elements of tragedy. Melody (song) and diction (language) fall in the general category of style, and spectacle is relevant to setting in our discussion of fiction. The other three aspects are mythos or plot, ethos or character, and dianoia, which we generally translate into thought in English. According to Aristotle, plot is the soul or shaping principle or fiction, and characters exist primarily as functions of the plot. In most of the stories, plot plays the role of p
