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1、1,Unit 18 第十八单元Building Construction 建筑施工,2,教学目标,了解各类承包商和承包过程了解承包过程中各方的关系熟悉建筑施工中的专业词汇熟悉科技类文献中的常用句型熟悉be subject to 的不同含义；several 的不同含义；be engaged with、be engaged by的不同含义；address、cite、argue的用法；Given.的用法；specification的不同含义。,3,The construction industry consists of numerous types of projects to include r
2、esidential units,commercial institutions and industrial projects,and heavy and highway projects（市政项目）.One means of classifying（分类）construction contractors is to identify（确定）the firms consistent with the type of work they perform;i.e.,a residential contractor,a building or commercial contractor,or a
3、heavy and highway contractor.建筑业由很多类型的工程项目组成，包括住宅单元、商业机构和工业项目以及市政项目。划分工程承包商类型的一种方法是确定该公司与他们所履行的工作类型是一致的；即住宅承包商，建筑或商业承包商，或市政承包商。,Construction Contractors 工程承包商(page 243),4,While（虽然）the purpose of this handbook addresses（针对.而写）the building/commercial contractor,it is helpful in understanding the chara
4、cteristics of the building/commercial contractor,to contrast the characteristics of the firm to（将.与.形成对照）those of the residential and/or heavy and highway contractor.虽然本手册的目的是针对建筑/商业承包商而写的，但它在理解建筑/商业承包商的特征时，有助于将公司的特征与住宅承包商和/或市政承包商的特征形成对照。,5,As pointed out there is the advantage of less sensitivity t
5、o the economy for the firm that has skills and performs each of the three types of work.On the other hand,it is not possible for every firm to involve itself in（陷于）the three types of construction work in that（因为）the physical（自然科学的）and management skills required differ for the three types of work.Obv
6、iously,not every firm can or should strive（努力）to possess all the skills required to enable its performing each of the three types of work.正如所指出的，有着一定技术、并履行这三种工作的公司具有对经济不太敏感的优势。另一方面，每个公司不可能将其自身陷于三种施工工作，因为三种工作所需的自然科学和管理技术是不同的。显而易见，不是每一个公司都能够或应该努力拥有所有所需的技术，使其能够履行三种工作。,6,Residential ContractorThe decisi
7、on to specialize in（专攻）residential,commercial,or heavy and highway construction should recognize the unique characteristics of each of the three types of work.Residential construction is characterized by（表现为.的特征）severe cycles in volume（数量）.The residential contractor is subject to（受.的支配）the policies
8、of the government.Due in major part to changes in the governments fiscal and monetary policies（财政和货币政策）,new residential housing（住宅建设）starts may approach（接近）two million units one year and one million the next.Variations in starts from one year to the next and from one season to the next often create
9、unique management problems for the residential contractor.His available cash（可用现金）through stack volume（堆积，可引申为建设）periods can make the difference（区别对待）between a continuing firm and a bankrupt firm.,7,住宅承包商决定专攻住宅建设、商业建设还是市政建设时，应该承认这三种工作各自独特的特性。住宅建设表现为数量上严重循环的特征。住宅承包商受政府政策的支配。主要由于政府财政和货币政策的变化，新的住宅建设的启动
10、可能这一年接近两百万套，下一年一百万套。启动时，从这一年到下一年、从这一季到下一季的变化常常引起住宅承包商独特的管理问题。在整个建设期间，他的可用现金允许在继续运作的公司和破产的公司之间区别对待。,8,Residential contractors have the advantages of being able to operate on a low volume in that they normally have relatively low overhead（企业管理费用）versus the building or heavy and highway contractors.Whe
11、reas the building or heavy and highway contractor must compete against above average-sized contractors,each having relatively sound（合理的）management practices（经验）,the residential contractor compete against much smaller firms who normally have less sophisticated（完善）management skills.This is not to say
12、that the residential contractor does not have competition,the opposite is in fact true.However,the size of the average competitor and the management skills of the average competitor allow the residential contractor to actually operate out of his house（脱离其机构）as a one-man show（独角戏）.Because of this,the
13、 number of residential contractors is numerous,often leading to excessive competition,low profit margins（利润率）,and bankruptcies.,9,住宅承包商具有能够少量运作的优势，因为他们相对于建筑承包商或市政承包商来说，具有相对低的企业管理费用。住宅承包商与小得多的公司竞争，那些小公司通常有着不太完善的管理技术，而建筑承包商或市政承包商必须与超出一般规模的承包商竞争，那些承包商都具有相对合理的管理经验。这不是说住宅承包商没有竞争，事实上正好相反。但是，一般竞争者的规模和管理技术实
14、际上允许住宅承包商脱离其机构独自运作。因此，住宅承包商的数量众多，常常引起过多的竞争、低的利润率以及破产。,10,Heavy and Highway ContractorSeveral differences exist between the building contractor and the heavy and highway contractor.For one,the building contractor is normally less dependent on the need for expensive equipment than is the heavy and hig
15、hway contractor.Because of its high investment in equipment,the main management task for the heavy and highway contractor centers on（集中）the ability to effectively utilize equipment and to minimize idle equipment（闲置设备）time.On the other hand,the building contractor is more dependent on the use of labo
16、r.Its management needs center on effective personnel management（人事管理）and the ability to control the many materials that flow to the commercial building construction project.,11,市政承包商在建筑承包商和市政承包商之间存在一些区别。一方面是建筑承包商通常比市政承包商更少依赖于昂贵设备的需要。由于对设备的高额投资，市政承包商的主要管理任务集中在能够有效地利用设备，并使闲置设备的时间最小。另一方面，建筑承包商更依赖于劳动力的使
17、用。其管理要求集中在有效的人事管理以及能够控制流向商业建筑施工项目的大量材料。,12,The heavy and highway contracting firm tends to be less subject to（遭受）bankruptcy than the residential contractor or the commercial building contractor.Perhaps this is due in part（部分地）to the fact that heavy and highway work(sometimes categorized as（归类为）publi
18、c-works construction)tends to be more stable as to profit margin earned.In additional,because of the high equipment investment needed to operate,the heavy and highway contractor tends to be a large firm with a relatively sound financial structure（财务结构）.Several of these differences in the types of fi
19、rms are summarized in Fig.18-2 and 18-3.市政承包公司往往比住宅承包商或商业建筑承包商更少遭受破产。这可能部分是由于市政工程（有时归类为公共工程建设）往往在赚取的利润率上更稳定。而且，由于需要高额的设备投资进行运作，市政承包商往往是一个大型的公司，具有相对合理的财务结构。不同类型公司中的这些区别总结在图18-2和图18-3中。,13,General v.SubcontractorWithin the classifications of residential,building,and heavy and highway contractors is a
20、class of（一类）contractors referred to as specialty contractors or subcontractors.These types of firms continue to be founded by craftsmen（工匠）and highly skilled（非常熟练的）individuals（个体）.Typically（一般）,the subcontractors are small as to the number of employees and its volume of work.Subcontractors normally
21、have relatively low overhead but are highly dependent on labor and labor productivity.Competition tends to be high and profit margins vary depending on the type of speciality work performed.Unlike the general contractor,the subcontractor is normally responsible for his own work.As such（同样地）the manag
22、ement skills needed to coordinate（协调）the skills of several（不同的）labor crafts（工艺）or flows（流通）of several types of materials are not vital to the subcontractors profit on a project or its financial stability.What is needed is an ability to perform a highly skilled type of work and to be able to obtain h
23、igh productivity while carrying out the work.,14,总承包商与分包商在住宅承包商、建筑承包商和市政承包商的分类范围中，有一类承包商称为专业承包商或分包商。这类公司不断地由工匠和非常熟练的个体创办。分包商在雇员数量和工作量方面一般是小规模的。分包商通常具有相对低的企业管理费用，但是高度依赖于劳动力和劳动生产力。竞争往往是激烈的，利润率随进行的专业工作的类型而变化。不象总承包商，分包商通常只负责其自己的工作。同样地，为协调不同劳动工艺的技能或不同种类的材料的流通所需的管理技能对分包商的项目利润或其财务稳定性不是至关重要的。分包商所需要的是能够非常熟练地
24、履行某类工作以及在进行该项工作时能够获得高的生产力。,15,The building or commercial contractor is normally engaged as a prime contractor（总承包商）directly with（打交道）the project owner.The contractor has responsibility for delivering the completed construction project to（移交）the project owner.In effect（实际上）the contract it signs（签署）pl
25、aces the firm in a role of independent contractor.In this process,specialty contractors are typically engaged（雇佣）by the contractors serving as subcontractors.建筑或商业承包商通常作为总承包商而直接与项目业主打交道。承包商负责将完成的建设项目移交给项目业主。实际上其签署的合同将公司置于独立承包人的角色。在此过程中，专业承包商一般被承包商雇佣而作为分包商。,The General Contracting Process 总承包过程(page
26、249),16,The building or commercial contractor serving（适合于）the role outlined above is referred to as the general contractor for the project.The process itself is commonly referred to as the general contracting process.The process is illustrated in Fig.18-4.适合于上面所描述的角色的建筑或商业承包商称为项目总承包商。该过程本身通常称为总承包过程。
27、该过程如图18-4所示。,17,The majority of building construction contracts are let（签定）using the general contracting process(note:the next chapter addresses（提出）an alternative process).Advocates（提倡者）of the general contracting process point to several reasons for their preference for the general contracting proce
28、ss.Project owners cite（列举）the fact that by means of soliciting bids（招标）on one single contract for their entire project via（通过）the single general contract,they are able to secure the most competitive(i.e.,lowest)price for the proposed project.Some project owners also argue（指出）that another advantage o
29、f this process is the fact that they,as the project owner,only have to deal with（与.打交道）a single contractor instead of having to contract and deal with individual specialty contractors.,18,大多数建筑施工合同采用总承包的方法被签定（注意，下一章节提出另一种可选择的方法）。总承包方法的提倡者对他们偏爱该方法指出了几个理由。项目的业主列举了这样一个事实，即通过采用单独总承包的方式对他们整个项目进行单独承包的招标，他
30、们能获得被提议项目最有竞争性（即最低）的价格。一些项目业主也指出该方法的另一个优势，即作为业主，他们只须与单个承包商打交道而不必与各个专业承包商签定合同并打交道。,19,The general contractor himself may favor（偏爱）the process relative to another process(e.g.,construction management)in that the potential for substantial（很多）profits exists if the contractor performs efficiently.The gen
31、eral contract typically signs a lump-sum contract（总价合同）for its services.If the firm is able to construct the project for less than the contract amount（承包价）,the entire difference（差额）becomes profit for the firm.Naturally,the competitive bidding（竞标）process limits the amount of profit that a firm can re
32、alize.However,given the documentation that as much as 50%of all on-site time is non-productive,the potential for that profits associated with eliminating or even reducing this non-productive time is substantial.It is this potential profit that the general contractor seeks.In effect the general contr
33、actor takes on（承受）a lump-sum contract risk as a means of seeking a large profit.Naturally it also follows（必然是）that while having a potential for a significant profit on a job,the possibility of a significant dollar（财富）loss also exists.,20,相对于另一个方法（比如施工管理），总承包商自身可能偏爱该方法（总承包），因为如果承包商有效地完成任务，就会有很多潜在利润。总
34、承包对它的服务一般签署总价合同。如果公司能以少于承包价建造该项目，全部的差价就成为公司的利润。自然，竞标过程限制了公司能实现的利润值。但是，据文献记载多达一半的现场时间是无生产效益的，则消除或甚至减少该无生产效益的时间带来的潜在利润是很大的。这正是总承包商寻求的潜在利润。实际上，总承包商以承受总价合同的风险作为寻求巨大利润的方法。自然，当一项工作具有巨大的潜在利润时，它也必然存在巨大财富损失的可能。,21,The architect/engineer designer illustrated as part of the project team in Fig.18-4 may also ar
35、gue（表明）in favor of the general contracting process.In particular the architect/engineer designer may cite the benefit of only having to write contract documents for a single contractor rather than write contract documents for a series of multiple specialty contracts.In addition most designers would
36、likely favor administering a single construction contract rather than multiple contracts.,如图18-4 中所示的建筑师/工程师设计人员，其作为项目组的一部分可能也表明喜欢总承包的方法。特别是建筑师/工程师设计人员可能列举了只须为单个承包商而不是一系列的多个专业合同书写合同文件的好处。而且，多数设计师可能喜欢管理单个施工合同而不是多个合同。,22,Independent of（与.无关）the project owner,the designer,or the general contractor,an i
37、ndependent party（独立方）might argue（认为）that the general contracting process enhances efficiency,technological change（科技进步）and free trade.Each and every bidder（投标人）in the general-contracting process has an equal opportunity to be low（低价）bidder for the owners project.Given the competitive bidding process
38、,it can be argued（表明）that the contractor will seek out efficient means of performing construction methods to include seeking new technology and cost-control means.Given this fact,it follows that the general contracting process promotes a more cost-effective construction industry（建筑业）.,23,与项目业主、设计师或总
39、承包商无关的某一独立方可能认为总承包方法提高了效率、增进了科技进步和自由贸易。在总承包方法中每个投标人具有同等的机会成为业主项目的低价投标人。通过竞标过程可以表明，承包商将寻找有效的方法进行施工，包括寻求新的技术和费用控制的方法。鉴于这个事实，则总承包方法必然促进了一个成本更有效的建筑业。,24,As an alternative（另一选择）to the competitive bidding procedure,the potential owner or his architect/engineer may negotiate with（与.协商）a contractor for buil
40、ding the project.This contractor is usually chosen because of his skill,his reasonable price,and his dependability（可靠性）.In order to assure himself of work in a negotiated contract environment,the construction contractor must maintain a respectable reputation（不错的信誉）with potential construction project
41、 owners.作为竞标方式的另一种选择，可能的业主或他的建筑师/工程师可以与承包商协商来建造该项目。该承包商通常由于其技能、合理的价格以及可靠性而被选择。为了确保其自身在一个议标合同的环境下工作，工程承包商必须同可能的工程项目的业主保持不错的信誉。,Negotiated Contracts 议标合同(page 252),25,Negotiated contracts often have the advantage of producing better coordination（配合）between the owner,the architect/engineer,and the cont
42、ractor.This improved（改进的）coordination often results in less construction delay time,better project quality,and savings in money for the owner.议标合同常常具有在业主、建筑师/工程师和承包商之间形成较好配合的优势。改进的配合常常导致较少的施工拖延时间、较高的项目质量以及业主资金的节约。,26,By using a negotiated contract,construction on a project may actually start before
43、the completion of the plans(设计)and specifications（合同条款）.In this case,the owner signs a letter of intent（意向书）with the contractor.This letter of intent assures the contractor that he will be paid for his services,even though the final contract for the project has not been signed,owing to the lack of（没
44、有）the finalization（最后决定）of the plans and specifications.The contractor is paid for his costs plus a negotiated fixed fee or percentage of the projects costs.通过采用议标合同，项目的施工实际上可以在设计和合同条款完成之前开始。在这种情况下，业主与承包商签署一份意向书。该意向书确保承包商将对他的服务获得支付，即使由于没有最后定下设计和合同条款，项目的最后合同还未签定。承包商获得其付出的成本加上一个协商的固定费用或项目成本的某个百分比。,27,
45、Arguments（观点）against negotiated contracts include higher contract prices and a lack of contractor incentive（鼓励）in finding new construction methods to do the job for a lower cost.The argument of higher owner project cost is debatable（有争议的）;i.e.,competitive contract owner costs must include advertisin
46、g and lettering（发信函）cost.In addition,the owner is more apt to（易于）get an irresponsible（不可靠的）contractor in a competitive bidding procedure versus a negotiated contract procedure.Negotiated contracts are gaining popularity（普及）in the construction industry.However,the competitive bidding procedure remain
47、s the rule（统治）in awarding construction contracts.,28,反对议标合同的观点包括较高的合同价格，并缺乏鼓励承包商寻找新的施工方法从而以较低的费用进行工作。业主较高的项目费用的观点是有争议的；即业主竞争性合同的费用必须包括登广告和发信函的费用。而且，竞标方式相对于议标合同方式，业主更易于获得不可靠的承包商。议标合同在建筑业获得了普及。但是，在签定施工合同时竞标方式依然处于统治地位。,29,A single contractor will seldom construct an entire project for the project owner
48、.This might only occur on a small project,such as a home owner hiring a contractor to pour a driveway（车道）.In this book,the construction project is meant to imply a somewhat large project;i.e.,several（一些）trades（交易）or skills are required for the building of the project.Projects such as home building,i
49、ndustrial construction,highway construction,and dams require several（不同的）types of contracting skills.Owing in part to the restricted size（有限的规模）of contracting firms and the unfeasibility of overexpanding（过分扩张的不可能性）,the average construction contractor is usually restricted to a few skills or types of
50、 work which he can perform.As a result,projects which require several（各种）different types of labor trades（手艺）or skills will have several contractors.,Contractor Responsibility to Owner 承包商对业主的职责,30,单个承包商很少建造项目业主全部的工程。这只可能发生在小项目，如住宅业主雇佣一个承包商浇灌一条车道。在本篇中，建筑项目意味着一个稍大的项目；即项目的建造需要一些交易或技能。诸如住宅建设、工业建设、公路建设以及
