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1、Lesson Four Contextual variation in language-learner language,Tasks:1 writing a paper on the topic A comparison between two levels of written English of students in Nantong University,Qs for Unit Four,1.What are the types of variability in language-learner language?2.What are the main points of syst
2、ematic variability?3.What are the main points of non-systematic variability?4.What are the main points of contextual variability?5.What are the main points of free variability?6.What style is basic for our understanding of language learner language?Why?7.What are the best data to use in describing i
3、nterlanguage?8.How can the variable nature of the learners interlanguage be accurately described?9.What is the role of contextual variability in SLA?10.What is the role of free variability in SLA?,What is variability?,Language users(including language learners)vary in the use they make of their ling
4、uistic knowledge.This variability can be unsystematic(i.e.haphazard)or systematic(two or more linguistic forms function as variants,which are used predictably according to the context).,系统变异举例情境变异：在正式场合与非正式场合He plays basketball.(正式场合)He play_ basketball.(非正式场合)上下文语境变异：随上下文语境变化Mr.Smith lives in Londo
5、n.(context A)Mr.Smith who live_ in London married my sister.(context B),1.What are the types of variability in language-learner language?Types of variability in language-learner language:,Individual vari(i.e.product of individual Learner factors)Systematic Variability linguistic context Contextual v
6、ariability situationalVariability context In interlg free variability Non-systematic Variability performance variability,2.What are the main points of systematic variability?,1.Systematic variability is accounted for by heterogeneous competence model Variable rules Implicational analysis(Approaches
7、to resolving the controdiction between variation and systematicity)2.Variability caused by situational factors(Labovs socialinguistic model)Language behaviour was predictable.Style-shifting took place systematically.3.Variability determined by linguistic factors.,Systematic variation,linguistic Mr.S
8、mith lives in Brisbane.Contextual Mr.Smith who live_in Brisbane.situation levels of formality;from vernacular to formalIndividual age,motivation,personality etc.,Homogeneous competenc语言使用者拥有一系列同类规则（语言能力linguistic competence），它们是语言运用(performance)能力的基础。语言知识与非语言知识分离。排除风格变异。认为所有变异都是非系统变异。Heterogeneous c
9、ompetence将语境因素看成是语言使用者应用语言知识的构成部分，即语用者不仅知道什么是正确的，而且还知道在特定语境下什么是合适的。非语言知识（语用知识）也是系统的。认为语言变异可分为系统变异和非系统变异。,Five axioms about how to study language use(Labov1970),All speakers possess several styles.That is,they adapt their speech to make it fit the social context.Styles can be ranged along a single di
10、mension,measured by the amount of attention paid to speech.A language user varies in the degree to which he is able to monitor his speech in different situations.The vernacular is the style in which minimum attention is given to monitoring speech.It is the style associated with informal,everyday spe
11、ech.It provides the most systematic data for linguistic study.It is not possible to tap the vernacular style of the user by systematic observation of how he performs in a formal context(such as an experiment).The only way to obtain good data on the speech of a language user is through systematic obs
12、ervation.,1)当社会语境和话题变化时,所有说话者都会在一定程度上改变他们的语言。2)语体可以按照一个单一维度分类,即给予话语的注意程度。语言使用者在不同场景中会调整对自已言语的监控程度。3)说话者对随意语体的话语给予的监控注意最少。这种语体与非正式的、日常的话语相联系 并且为语言研究提供最系统性的语料4)通过系统的观察语言使用者在正式语境(如实验)中的表现不可能发现随意语体。5)获得关于语言使用者话语的“好数据”的唯一途径就是通过系统观察。,The conflict between the fourth and fifth axioms leads to what Labov cal
13、ls the Observers Paradox.Good data require systematic observation,but this prevents access to the users vernacular style,which,because it is the most systematic style,is the principal goal of linguistic enquiry.,An example of how a sociolinguistic model deals with variability caused by situational f
14、actors:Labov(1970)examined the speech patterns of New Yorkers.He collected data in various ways in order to sample a range of speech styles.These he classified asCasual speechCareful speechReadingWord listsMinimal pairsThese styles were spread along a continuum according to the amount of attention p
15、aid by the speakers to their own speech.Thus in(1)very little attention was paid,while in(5)careful monitoring occurred.The important point was that language behaviour was predictable.,Labov also deals with variability determined by linguistic factors.He examined the use of the copula(be)in utteranc
16、es produced by speakers of Black English Vernacular in New York and found that the presence of absence of the copula was largely systematic.Thus be was variability in all contexts,but certain contexts predisposed the speaker to use it more frequently than other contexts.Labov views contextual factor
17、s as an integral part of the users ability to use his linguistic knowledge.,Invariant rules&Variable rules,A homogeneous competence model accounts for a homogeneous linguistic competence in terms of invariant rules,a heterogeneous competence model such as Labovs accounts for communicative competence
18、 in terms of variable rules.Invariant rules are categorical statements which specify the set of well-formed sentences in the grammar of a language.Variable rules are statements which give the probability of certain grammatical forms occurring in particular situational and linguistic contexts.,What i
19、s Variable rules?,Categorical rule:X Y/AWhere X refer to the variable itself,Y to its actual realization,and A the particular context or style(for example,the first sound of thing is realized as/t/ina casual style.)The actual behaviour of Labovs subjects,however,was not usually categorical in this w
20、ay.They tended to use one variant in one style and another variant in another style to a greater or lesser extent.,变量规则,“变量规则”（variable rules)这个规则是Labov提出的语言变异的“概率规则”。Frch(1980)的举例：Y（变体）0.6-context A（casual）Z（变体）0.4-context AX（变量）Y（变体）0.9-context B（careful)Z（变体）0.1-context B,This states that a given
21、 variable feature,x,is menifest as either Y or Z with differing levels of probability depending on the context/style.It can show that speakers are much more likely to use the prestige feature,Y,in a careful style,B,than in a more casual style,A,and,conversely,that they are less likely to use the les
22、s socially prestigious feature,Z,in B than in A.,Implicational analysis,An alternative way of accounting for variability is by means of implicational analysis.(Decamp 1971;Bickerton 1975)This approach involves viewing language as an intersecting set of idiolects.Bickerton(1975)used it to study varia
23、tion in the language of speakers of the creole continuum in Guyana.,蕴含比例法(implicational scale),表1 6位说话者言语中的圭亚那克里奥尔语的变体Speaker Linguistic features Ving Ning doz a1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 5 6,语言变化和共时变异的关系在克里奥尔语中是很明显的。一种克里奥尔语有几种变体(被称为“方言”):1)基础方言具有的克里奥尔语特征最强;2)中间方言有中等层次的克里奥尔语特征;3)高级方言最接近于标准语言。这3 种变体构成
24、一个连续体,从最基本的基础方言向高级方言发展。Bickerton(1975)研究了圭亚那克里奥尔语,发现可以用蕴含量表(implicational scale)确定不同说话者在克里奥尔语连续体上的具体位置(表 1)。表 1报告了6 位说话者对 4 个语言特征的掌握情况。说话者1 和 2 只掌握了一个语法特征,因此他们说的是基础方言;说话者 3 和 4 掌握了两到 3 个语言特征,因此处于中间方言阶段;说话者 5 和 6全部掌握了 4 个语言特征,已经到达了高级方言阶段。在表1 中,说话者对语言特征的掌握情况形成了蕴含量表,在每一行中如果说话者掌握了左边的一个特征就表示他已经掌握了此特征右边的所
25、有特征。例如,如果说话者 5 掌握了特征Ving,那么他肯定也已经掌握了另外 3 个.,Bickerton identified three segments in this continuum.The basilect（下层方言）was the creole variety most distinct from the standard form of the language.The mesolect（混杂性方言）is an intervening variety,and the acrolect（上层方言）the variety closest to the standard.,3.Wh
26、at are the main points of non-systematic variability?,Non-systematic variation:free variation:When a new form exists along side other forms,e.g.,use of should/had better/better/have to/must.Usually temporary.performance variation:result of specific context demands,4.What are the main points of conte
27、xtual variability?,Contextual variability in situational context.Dickerson(1975)found that L2 learners used the target language variants or those variants linguistically closest to the correct target language form in situation where they were able to audio-monitor their speech,and those variants lin
28、guistically distant from the correct target language form in situations where audio-monitoring was not possible.,Schmidt(1977),for instance,noted that Arabic speaking students of English became more accurate in their use of English th sounds in a formal task than in an informal task.He also noted th
29、at these learners did exactly the same in L2 English as they did in L1 Arabic,where they also style-shifted from relative low to high frequency in the use of th sounds,depending on whether they were speaking colloquial Arabic(associated with informal situations)or classical Arabic(associated with fo
30、rmal situations.)The patterns of style-shifting were the same in L1 and L2.,Schmidt(1980)investigated second-verb ellipsis in sentences like Mary is eating an apple and Sue*a pear.Learners from a variety of language backgrounds always included the second verb in such sentences in free oral productio
31、n,but increasingly omitted it in proportion to the degree of monitoring permitted by different tasks(i.e.elicited imitation,written sentence-combining,and grammatical judgement).,The interlanguage continuum(Tarone 1983:152),vernacular style style 2 style 3 style 4 style n careful style unattended at
32、tended various elicitation grammatical speech speech tasks(e.g.imitation,judgements data data sentence combination),At one end of the continuum is the vernacular style,which is called upon when the learner is not attending to his speech.This is the style that is both most natural and most systematic
33、.At the other end of the continuum is the careful style,which is most clearly evident in tasks that require the learner to make a grammatical judgement(e.g.to say whether a sentence is correct or incorrect).The careful style is called upon when the learner is attending closely to his speech.Thus the
34、 stylistic continuum is the product of differing degrees of attention reflected in a variety of performance tasks.,Contextual variability in linguistic context,Variability as a result of the linguistic context occurs when two different linguistic context induce different forms even though in the tar
35、get language they require the same form.e.g.Mr Smith lives in Gloucester.Mr Smith who live in Gloucester married my sister.,vernacular A BSimple complex C D careful Figure 4.3 Interlanguage as the intersection of two continua,For example,it can be predicted that,to begin with,use of the third person
36、 singular will be most frequent when the linguistic context is simple and the style careful(i.e.section C of Figure 4.3).It will be least frequent when the linguistic context is complex and the style is vernacular(i.e.B).Whether A（plex linguistic context but casual style）leads to greater regularity
37、of use is not certain.,5.What are the main points of free variability?Free variability,In the initial stages it is likely that a fair proportion of the variation is haphazard.That is,the learner possesses two or more forms which he uses to realize the same range of meanings.e.g.No look my card.Dont
38、look my card.(The boy was playing a card game and wanted to stop other pupils looking at his card.),Gatbonton(1978)gradual diffusion model)“扩散模式”“习得阶段”(acquisition phase)“替换阶段”(replacement phase)“习得阶段”：学习者首先在所有的情境或语境使用一种形式。如汉语的“不”；引入“没”以后，学习者将二者作为自由变体在所有的语境使用；替换阶段：学习者消除自由变体，“不”和“没”各司其职。,Interlanguag
39、e variability and SLA research,The kinds of variability described in the previous section pose a number of problems for SLA research,and,therefore,for our understanding of language-learner language.These problems are:What style is“basic”or primary?What are the best data to use in describing interlan
40、guage?How can the variable nature of the learners interlanguage be accurately described?,6.What style is basic for our understanding of language learner language?Why?,Tarone(1982;1983)claims that the vernacular style of interlanguage is primary/basic,asit is the most stable,it seems to reflect unive
41、rsal principles of language acquisition,it is the style of unplanned discourse.,7.What are the best data to use in describing interlanguage?,P89An assumption is often made in SLA research that data are only valid if they reflect the learners natural performance,which in turn is equated with the kind
42、 of spontaneous communicative behaviour associated with unplanned discourse.This assumption is based on the belief that the vernacular style is in some way more basic than the other interlanguage styles.,Two dangers to be avoided,There are two dangers to be avoided in SLA research.The first is to av
43、oid making false claims about the data used.It is,for instance,misleading to base statements about a natural route on data that have been collected by means of an elicitation instrument.The second danger is that of mixing data from different sources,making it impossible to distinguish one interlangu
44、age style from another.If the data from a range of tasks(e.g.speaking,listening,reading,writing,or elicited imitation)are not kept separate,the systematicity of interlanguage will be disguised.,8.How can the variable nature of the learners interlanguage be accurately described?,Variable rules system
45、atic variabilityDiffusion model Free variabilityImplicational scaling-systematic variability Free variability,Variable rules,One way is to make use of variable rules.These are rules which specify the probability of two or more variants occurring in different situational or linguistic contexts.For in
46、stance,learners sometimes produce WH questions which are inverted and sometimes WH questions which are not inverted.A close analysis of a corpus of learner utterances may reveal that most inverted WH questions contain the copula or auxiliary be.Similarly it may reveal that most non-inverted WH quest
47、ions(but again not all)contain auxiliaries other than be.It is possible to capture this kind of regularity by writing a variable rule which shows the level of probability of inverted and non-inverted WH questions occurring when each linguistic condition prevails.,Diffusion model,Variable rules are b
48、est used to describe systematic variability.They cannot handle free variability.Free variability and developmental changes can be dealt with more effectively using a diffusion model(Gatbonton 1978).The model posits two broad phases of development of an interlanguage rule:acquisition phase replacemen
49、t phase,In the acquisition phase the learner first uses a given form in his interlanguage in every situation or context and then introduces a second form.To begin with,this is used together with the first form in all environments.In other words,the two forms are used in free variation.In the replace
50、ment phase the learner first restricts one of the forms to a specific environment,while continuing to use both forms in all other environments.Later he restricts both forms to their respective environments.,Implicational scaling,Anothet technique that has been used to represent the variation in L2 p
