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1、Chapter 1 Basic Concepts 基本概念1.1 the definition of a word （he definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a
2、 given sound and meaning and syntactic function.）1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1. No enough letters: al
3、phabet from latin2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling 1.3 sound and form ：all national character 全民性stability 稳定性productivity 多产性polysemy 一词多义collocability 搭配性 obvious characteristics明
4、显的特点1.4 vocabularyby use frequency 按使用频率分：basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇by notion 按概念分：content words and functional words实义词和功能词by origin 按起源分：native words and borrowed words本地词和外来词basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary非基本词汇1.5 classification of wordsneutral in style 文体上中性fre
5、quent in use 使用频繁native words本地词borrowed words外来词terminology 术语jargon 行话slang 俚语argon 黑话dialectal words 方言词archaism 古语词neologism 新词denizens 同化词aliens 异形词translation-loans 译借词semantic-loans 借义词词汇分类Chapter 2 DevelopmentPrussian 普鲁士语Lithuanian 立陶宛语Polish 波兰语Czech 捷克语Bulgarian 保加利亚语Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语Russi
6、an 俄语Eastern set：东部诸语族： Western set：西部诸语族：It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.Balto-Slavic 波罗的海-斯拉夫语Indo-Iranian 印度-伊朗语Armenia
7、n 亚美尼亚语Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语Persian 波斯语Bengali 孟加拉国语Hindi 印地语Romany 普吉赛语Scottish 苏格兰语Irish 爱尔兰语Welsh 威尔士语Breton 布里多尼语2.1 Indo-European 印欧语Celtic 凯尔特语Italic 意大利语Hellenic 希腊语 GreekGermanic 日耳曼语Portuguese 葡萄牙语Spanish 西班牙语French 法语Italian 意大利语Roumanian 罗马尼亚语Latin 拉丁语言Norwegian 挪威语Icelandic 冰岛语Danish 丹麦语Swedis
8、h 瑞典语German 德语Dutch 荷兰语Flemish 佛兰德语English 英语Scandinavian languages斯堪的纳维亚语50000-60000 words 5万6万间词汇Highly inflected 高度转折complex endings 复杂的结尾vowel changes 元音变化Old English (450-1150) Anglo-Saxon古英语 盎格鲁-撒克逊语Middle English (1150-1500)中古英语Modern English (1500-up to now)现代英语French words 法语词汇leveled endin
9、gs 水平结尾2.2 Historical reviewBorrow 借词new words 新词 no endings 无结尾 历史概述Early Modern English (1500-1700)早期现代英语Late Modern English (1700-up to the present)晚期现代英语from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的分析型语言。the rapid development of modern science and tec
10、hnology （45 ）现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（ 45 ）social, economic and political changes（11 ）社会，经济和政治的变化（ 11 ）the influence of other cultures and languages（ 24 ）其它文化和语言的影响（ 24 ）three main sources三种主要来源2.3 Growth of Present-day English VocabularyCreation 创词 formation of new words, most importantsemantic change 旧词新义 old
11、 form with new meaning, new usagesborrowing 借词 vital role2.4 Modes of Vocabulary DevelopmentChapter 3 Word Formation3.1 Morphemes 词素 Definition: These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.词素是“构词中最小功
12、能单位”。3.2 Allomorphs 语素变体 Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning.The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone. 词素是一个音素发音的语素。词素是真正能发音的最小的意义载体。monomorphemic words：can stand by themse
13、lves and function freely in a sentence.单语素词 在句子中独立起作用allomorphs：the alternative morphs of the same morpheme词素变体 可替换语素（音标）的相同词素 morphemeIndependent 独立free grammatical units 自由的语法单位complete meanings 完整的意义free morpheme free root自由语素 自由词根bound morpheme粘着语素3.3 Types of Morphemesbound root ：fundamental me
14、aning粘着词根 基本意义affix词缀（附加物）attach, modify 附着，修饰Inflectional affix attached to the end of words 附在词尾曲折词缀 Grammatical relationships 文法关系derivational affix派生词缀prefix前缀Suffix后缀3.4 Root and Stemaffix词缀root or stem词根或词干The affixation and compounding involve different word-forming elements词缀法和混合涉及不同的词语构成因素C
15、hapter 4 Word-formationaffixation (30%-40%) 词缀法（ 30 -40 ）compounding (28%-30%) 复合法（ 28 -30 ）conversion (26%) 转化法（ 26 ）shortening (8%-10%) 缩略法 （ 8 -10 ）blending and other means (1%-5%) 拼缀法和其他方法（ 1 -5% ）clipping 删节acronymy 首字母缩略法Word formation 构词的方式prefixation 前缀法 before the word, modify the meaning 前
16、置，改词意suffixation 后缀法 after the word, change word class 后置，改词性4.1 Affixation 词缀法 falls into two subclasses（子类）:Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, for new words created in this way
17、 are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives. 词缀法可定义为通过给词干加结构词词缀或派生词缀构成新词的一种构词方法。用这种方法构成的词叫派生构词。因为通过这种方式创造的新词是从旧词派生而来。通过这种方式造出的词叫做“派生词”。Negative prefixes 否定前缀Reversative prefixes 逆反前缀Pejorative prefixes 贬义前缀Prefixes of degree or size 程度大小前缀Prefixes of orientation
18、and attitude 倾向态度前缀Locative prefixes 方位前缀Prefixes of time and order 时间顺序前缀Number prefixes 数字前缀Miscellaneous prefixes 多种前缀4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法 we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups我们可以在语义基础上将前缀分为九类Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefix
19、es do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 前缀法是在词干上加上前缀构词的一种方法，前缀一般不改变词干的词类，只对词干的意义进行修饰。a. The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people, -ant，-ee，-ent，-er（-or）下面这组后缀加在动词词干上构成新词，主要表示人，。b. Suffixes of this group added to
20、 verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc：-al，-age，-ance，-ation(-ition,-tion,-sion,-ion)，-ence，-ing，-ment下面这组后缀加在动词词干上，主要构成抽象名词，表示动作、结果、过程、状态等。a. Concrete 具体名词 eer,-er,-ess,-ette,-terb. Abstract 抽象名词 age,-dom,-ery(-ry),-hood,-ing,-ism,-ship1) Denomin
21、al nouns 名词派生来的名词2) Deverbal nouns 动词派生来的名词3) De-adjective nouns :-ity,-ness 由形容词转化为名词4) Noun and adjective suffixes :-ese,-an,-ist名词和形容词后缀 Noun suffixes 名词后缀Adjective suffixes 形容词后缀Adverb suffixes: -ly,-ward (s),-wise副词后缀Verb suffixes：-ate,-en,- (i)fy,-ize (-ise)动词后缀 1) Denominal suffixes：-ed,-ful,
22、-ish,-less,-like,-ly,-y 名词派生的后缀（加名词后）2) Deverbal suffixes:-able（-ible），-ive（-ative，-sive）动词派生的后缀（加动词后）4.1.2 Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem .Suffixes have only a small semantic role,
23、their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. 后缀法是在词干加上后缀来构成新词。不像主要改变词干意义的前缀，后缀的只有很小语义作用，其主要功能是改变词干的语法功能。换句话说，他们主要是改变词性。 4.2 Compounding 复合法 Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining t
24、wo or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. 复合法，同样也被称作合成法,是指由两个或者更多的词干相结合而构成的新词，此种方式形成的词被称为复合词。所以，复合词是“由多于一个以上的词干组成的，同时具有一个词的语法功能和意义功能的词汇单位”。1).
25、Phonetic features 语音特点 first element stress 第一个构词成分重音2).Semantic features 语义特点 unity, as one word 统一性，如同个单词3).Grammatical features 语法特点 single grammatical role 独立的语法作用4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特征Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:复合词和自由词组不同于三个方面Noun compou
26、nds 名词性复合词Adjective compounds 形容词性复合词Verb compounds 动词复合词conversion 反转backformation -er, -ing, -ion 逆序法4.4.2 Formation of Compounds复合词的形成(1) State (of mind or sensation) 状态（心理或感觉）(2) Event or activity 事件或行动(3) Result of the action 行动的结果(4) Doer of the action 行动的发出者(5) Tool or instrument to do the ac
27、tion with 行动的工具(6) Place of the action 行动的地点1) Verb to noun动词转名词 2) Adjective to noun形容词转名词1.Conversion to noun转化为名词2. Conversion to verbs转化为动词3.Miscellaneous conversion混合反转 Phrasal verbs to nouns: Keep original order Invert the verb and particle: p+v动词短语转名词：保持原有顺序， 动词小品词出现反转 (1) Words fully convert
28、ed 完全转化的词 (2) Words partially converted 部分转化的词(3) Miscellaneous conversion 多种转化(1) To put in or on N 放入名词(2) To give N or to provide with N 提供名词(3) To remove N from 从消除名词(4) To do with N 用名词做(5) To be or act as N 象名词一样起作用(6) To make or change into N 变成名词(7) To send or go by N 用名词送去1）Noun to verb名词变动
29、词2）Adjective to verb形容词变动词4.3 Conversion 转化法（1）Voiceless to voiced consonant 清辅音变浊辅音（2）Initial to end stress 字首重音变字尾重音Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is
30、also known as functional shift. Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class, without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation.转类法是将一种词类转化为另一种词类构成新词的方法。这些词在语法意义上是新词。既然这些词在形态结 构上不便，只在功能上有变化，这一转类过程也叫做功能转换。一般
31、认为，转类法是单词不添加词缀而直接 转化为一个新词的派生构词的过程。这一过程由于不加词缀，所以又称零派生。1. head + tail 头尾2. head + head 头头3. head + word 头整词4. word + tail 整词尾4.4 blending 拼缀法，混合词blends fall into four major groups:Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed
32、 in this way are called blends or pormanteau words. 拼缀法是通过合并两个词的某些部分或一个词与另外一个词的另一部分相加起来构成新词。 以此种方式构成的词被称作为拼缀词或拼级词。1. Front clipping 前删2. Back clipping 后删3. Front and back clipping 前后删4. Phrase clipping 删短语4.5 Clipping截短法，删减法There are four common types of clipping:Another common way of making a word
33、is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping. 1. Letters represent full words 字母代表所有词2. Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word字母代表复合词或者只是一个词的几部分另一个常见的构词法时将原词的一部分截去，只用剩下来的一部分构成新词，这种方法叫截短法。Initialis
34、ms首字母缩略词Acronyms 首字母拼音词Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. 一个字母一个字母念。Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. 首字母拼音词是由字母组合在一起作为一个标准单词拼音的词。4.6 Acronym 首字母缩词法Abstract nouns 抽象名词Human nouns 人类名词Compound nouns and others 复合名词和其他Adjectives 形容词4.7 Back
35、-formation 逆构法Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs. 逆构法被认为是后缀法的相反过程。由逆构法生成的词多半是动词。Formation of new words by removing the supposed suffixes Style: informal 非正式通过消除假想的后缀的方法来构词的方式names of people 人名names of places 地
36、名names of books 书名trade names 商业名称4.8 words from proper nouns 专有名词转化而来的词Style: vivid, impressive, thought-provoking 生动，印象深刻，发人深省的 定义模式：its the formation of new words by doing(doing是主要动词，可替换为add, cut, join/combine, change) 分类：1)词的自身长度变化(变形)：加减法 加：affixation，减：clipping, back-formation2)词间组合：整体组合：compo
37、und; 部分组合：blending; 字母组合：acronymy3)词的自身变化:变性:conversion; 变态/变位:words from proper names (普通化/特殊变为普通)Chapter 5 Word Meaning 词义Reference 参照Concept 概念Sense 语感5.1 Meanings of meaningWords are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship bet
38、ween language and the world. 词只是符号，许多词只有获得参照后才有意义。参照是语言与周围世界的关系。Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. 意义与概念有紧密的联系，但并不等同。他们都直接与参照相关，都是词的概念，但属于不同的范畴。Generally speaking, t
39、he meaning of meaning is perhaps what is termed sense. Unlike reference, sense denotes the relationships inside the language. Every word that-has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) 一般来说，意义的意义也许就是“语感” 。不像参照，“语感”表示的是语言内部的关系。有意义的每个词都有语感，但并不是每个词都有参照物。Onomatopoeic Motivation 象声动机 ：sounds su
40、ggest meanings, imitating natural sounds or noises 声音暗指意义，模仿自然的声音Morphological Motivation 形态动机 ：the meanings are the sum total of the morphemes combined 组合词素的综合Semantic Motivation 语义动机 Etymological Motivation 词源动机 ：the meanings often relate to the origin 与来源有关the mental associations suggested by the
41、 conceptual meaning of a word 词的概念所指的精神联系the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense 文字语义和寓意间的联系5.2 Motivation 动机Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 动机是语言符号和它意义之间的关系。Grammatical Meaning 语法意义Lexical Meaning词法的意义Conceptual Meaning 概念意
42、义Associative Meaning联系意义1. Connotative meaning 内涵意义 2. Stylistic meaning 文体意义3. Affective meaning 情感意义4. Collocative meaning 搭配意义5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的类型appreciative 褒义pejorative 贬义Word-meaning is not monogeneous but a composite consisting of different parts. These are known in familiar terms as d
43、ifferent types of meaning. 词义并非是成分单一的，而是由不同部分组合的复合物。这些在熟悉的术语中通常称作不同类型的意义。Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field 语义关系和语义场polysemy 歧义homonymy 同音异义synonymy 同义antonymy 反义hyponymy 上下位关系sense relations语义关系6.1 Polysemy 歧义Definition:the words with more than one senses or which can be used to express more meanings 一词多义。diachronic approach. 历时的角度: growth and development 成长和发展 primary meaning 基本义-derived meaning 派生义
