篇章策略与篇章类型.doc

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1、篇章分析1. 篇章类型构建任何一个语篇,总是为了完成某种目的,起到某种功能,阐述某个观点。语篇中的所有成分都应该直接或间接有助于完成那种功能,阐述那个观点。语篇通常要完成人类四个基本的天生需求:(1)想要解释或提供信息;(2)想要使人信服;(3)想要说某个东西看上去像什么,听起来像什么,摸上去像什么;(4)想要说发生了什么。这四个天生的需求决定了语篇的种类。每一个天生的需求代表了在某一特定种类语篇中要完成的目的。(引自胡曙中 2005:57)一般说来,英语的基本语篇种类有四种:说明、论辩、描写和叙述,与论辩语篇紧密相关的还有劝说语篇。1.1 说明语篇“说明(Exposition)”这个术语的字

2、面意义是阐明一个主题,它诉诸于理解。论辩也诉诸于理解,但它不是为了阐明,而是为了是受话者信服某个事物是真实的或值得要的。描写和叙述也诉诸于理解,但是它们特殊的诉诸对象是想像力,目的在于使受话者能直接重新创造物体或实践。说明语篇使语篇构建中最常见的种类,因为它适用于任何与理解有关的语篇,比如,对一个词的定义的理解,对某一个历史事件缘由的理解,等等。说明语篇可以被看作是对问题的回答。在构建说明语篇时必须确定哪一个具体问题可能时我们感兴趣的。这个问题有助于我们将精力集中在主题有吸引力的地方,并主宰着我们的回答。以下是说明语篇可能会满足的几种兴趣:1. 那是什么?那意味着什么?那是干什么的?那是如何合

3、在一起的?那是如何起作用的?那本来是准备做什么的?那怎么成了这个样子?那是什么时候出现或存在的?那对什么有好处?那有什么重要性?那完成其作用或目的的情况如何?当然,并不是所有问题都适用于同一主题。无论讨论的长短如何,我们通常会发现要涉及不止一个问题。其中,有一个主要的问题表示主要的兴趣,但是为了对那个问题做出满意的回答,或许还必须有其它的问题要提出和回答,因此又会涉及语篇统一性和连贯性的问题。主要问题必须统帅全句。可以把对主要问题的回答看成是提出论点,提出主旨,提出中心思想。上面提出的一系列问题不应该被认为是包罗万象的,它们只是表示说明语篇可被用来满足的所有兴趣。1.1.1 说明的方法常用的说

4、明方法有:比较和对比、列举、分类、定义和分析。这些是我们需要用说明来回答问题的方式。但这并不是说对于每一个问题都会有一种说明的方法,有些方法可以被用来回答不止一个问题,而有时对于一个问题的回答,则可以把几种方法结合起来进行。1.1.1.1 比较和对比 人类在碰到不熟悉的物体时,很自然会把它与熟悉的物体相比较,本能地想知道它在哪些方面与熟悉的事物相像,在哪些方面与熟悉的事物不同,这是人类对世界经历进行分类的一种简单而又基本的方法。1.1.1.2 列举 比较和列举都涉及用范畴和具体项进行思维,但是它们与范畴和具体项之间的关系不同。比较和对比是在某个有意义范畴中两个或更多项之间进行比照,而列举是用某

5、个具体项来阐释这个具体项所属的范畴的性质。1.1.1.3 分类 虽然分类也与范畴及其具体项之间的联系有关,但它是与范畴的体系有关,这个体系从包括最少的范畴一直到包括最多的范畴。当我们把一个具体项放在一个体系的某一个范畴中的时候,立即明白了它与这个体系上端和下端之间的联系。分类是组织只是的一种基本方式,是一种归档的体系,也是获得新知识的一种方法。1.1.1.4 定义 逻辑定义的第一部分是它的范畴,有那些具有相似性或共同特点能合在一起的成分所组成;第二部分是它的种类,即那些把它合同一范畴其它成分区分开来的特点。1.1.1.5 分析法 分析法是把某个物体或概念分解成组成部分的方法,它适用于任何能被认

6、为具有成分的东西。1.1.1.6 说明性的叙述 说明性叙述不同于一般的叙述,后者是一种基本的语篇种类,其目的是提供一个经历过事件的感觉,涉及对想像力的诉诸,但是说明性叙述只是提供信息以增加理解。1.2 劝说语篇英语的论辩和劝说往往合并在一起,其间的联系的确是紧密的。但是,除非能把它们严格地区分开来,否则我们是无法理解这种联系的。严格来说,论辩的目的是获得真理,而劝说的目的是使被劝说者赞同劝说者的意愿。论辩和劝说在目的上的这一区别非常关键。但是为了能真正利用这一区别,我们必须意识到另外还有一种区别:达到论辩的目的只有一种方法,即通过论理的过程;而达到劝说的目的可以有若干种方法,有时可以单独使用,

7、但往往是结合在一起使用的。亚里士多德在修辞学种提出劝说有三种方法:第一种是依靠劝说者的性格和可靠性;第二种是依靠劝说者在被劝说者中激起感情的能力;第三种是依靠“真理或表面上是真理”的证据。1.3 论辩语篇论辩通常会在冲突或者怀疑的情景下产生。冲突或怀疑被称为论辩的心理情景。然而,还有一些不是冲突或怀疑的场合也会涉及论辩。1.4 描写语篇描写这种语篇与世界在我们感官上产生的印象有关,它呈现物体、人物、环境和行动的性质,目的是引起观察者的想像力。这种描写被称作联想性描写。英语中还有一种描写,称作说明性描写,不过它其实是一种说明。这两种描写的区别主要在于使用场合的不同。说明性描写是以使受众从所描写事

8、物中获取信息为目的,而联想性描写是要求受众对所描写事物产生直接的感官联想。前者从根本上来说是说明性的,因为它试图达到加深受众对语篇的理解的目的,而后者试图通过想像使人对某种事物有所经历,这也就是为什么后一种描写被认为是联想性的缘故。1.5 叙述语篇 篇章策略篇章策略(text strategy)是Enkvist(1975)提出的术语,是篇章生产中的一个重要概念,指篇章生产者在篇章生产中根据交际目的对组篇所做的总体决策和选择,是为一定的目的而对决策参项(decision parameters)所做的权衡(Enkvist, 1987)。在篇章生产中,我们常常面对许多选择,当我们或多或少有意识地选择

9、某一项时,总有一定的理由。换句话说,决策是在对不同因素的自觉的、理性的、有目的的权衡中作出的。决策就是要判断选择项中哪一个以何种方式在什么程度上最好地服务于篇章目的。篇章可能有一个或多个明确的或隐含的目的,这些目的反过来影响我们对篇章组织最佳方案的选择,也就是说影响篇章策略的选择。因此篇章策略解释了为什么将篇章基础以某种特定方式组织成篇的问题。篇章生产者在组篇时会作出多种选择,这一过程可以看作是在决策参项区域内对某些合适点的选择。篇章策略具有读者定位性。篇章的理解和可解读性是一个非常复杂的、增量的过程,包含着自下而上(bottom-up)、自上而下(top-down)以及错综交互的处理过程的相

10、互作用。从信息处理和可解读性角度看,篇章接受者在篇章周围建立一个篇章世界(text world)并与语篇世界(universe of discourse)联系起来。所谓语篇世界,指篇章可置于其中的大领域,特定的篇章世界及其规约、限制包括其中。篇章策略由此又看作篇章生产者以给接受者提供信息的手段影响篇章世界建构的一种方式,通过提供信息完善篇章体系,以这个体系消除接受者对某一语篇世界理解的不确定性。因而篇章策略从某种程度上说,是受篇章接受者制约或由篇章接受者决定的。从跨篇章性的角度看,篇章策略又可以看作对现存的、熟知的篇章整体组织方式或多或少的趋同或违背,是一个从完全符合传统篇章模式到积极避免原型

11、篇章结构之间的区域。篇章策略连续体篇章生产者在篇章生产中根据交际目的对组篇所作的总体决策和选择成为篇章策略,它是抽象的,而篇章策略连续体(text-strategic continuity, or TSC for short)是具体的,是篇章策略的实例。连续体及其对篇章的影响与总体篇章策略紧密联系,或者说它和决定篇章组织形式的篇章类型一样是篇章策略的一种选择,包括在篇章策略之中。篇章生产者依据自己预定的目的以及对相关组篇参项的权衡,会发现以一种方式而不是另一种方式建构篇章最为自然,最能表现自己的目的。换言之,篇章策略连续体是作者根据交际目的,以获取最大限度有利于篇章接受者的篇章组织形式为目的,

12、作出选择的主位或主题一致性篇章建构的定位或倾向。在某一交际情景中,对接受者的有利程度由篇章生产者作出判断,连续体通过语言特征在篇章表层展现出来。被选择的篇章策略连续体作为主位性篇章连结线索,纵向贯穿篇章或篇章片段,属于篇章策略连续体线索的成分出现于句子或小句的开头,体现句子的主题。也就是说,已知信息居前这一无标记原则,通过由篇章策略连续体贯穿起来的句子和小句来体现。作者对篇章策略连续体的选择是由其交际目的决定的。篇章策略连续体内部进程步骤,即由一个阶段进入一个新的阶段,称为转移(shift),比如空间连续体中从一个地点转换到一个新的地点,时间连续体中从一个时间进入另一个时间点,人物连续体中人物

13、的改变,均为转移。转移不打破连续体,因而,连续体与亚里士多德的“一律”(unity)不同,“一律”指的是一个静态的、不变的时间和空间背景,连续体则是一个动态的概念,随篇章发展而“转移”。转移是不同篇章单位的标记,它将篇章分为次篇章或片断,因而转移不是随意的,而是有目的的,作者通过转移将篇章表达出来的连续概念切割成更小的概念单位。篇章策略连续体类型的改变如从时间连续体改变为空间连续体称为中断(break)。一个连续体的中断,往往伴随着篇章中同时运作的其他连续体的中断。“中断”也是标示篇章单位边界的信号,往往引起篇章类型的改变,可用于在多类型篇章中引进一个新的篇章类型。Givon(1984)认为,

14、在由多个独立的篇章单位构成的整个层级性篇章结构中,中断出现于层级较高的篇章单位边界上,转移出现在层级较低的篇章单位边界上。也就是说,两中断之间的篇章单位可以自成独立的小篇章,而两转移间的篇章单位只是一个篇章片断。2.1.1篇章策略连续体的类型一个篇章一般包含一个以上类型的连续体,而其中一种类型占优势或支配地位。连续体大致有以下几种类型:2.1.1.1 时间连续体(continuity of time)时间连续体通过篇章中置于句首的时间连接链来实现,有时在这个链中可以出现非状语的时间性表达方式。Sometime about 1935 or 1936 I had an interview with

15、 Make Jacobs, the prizefight promoter. I was a fledgling newspaper reporter at that time; my beat was education, but during the vacation season I found myself on varied assignments, all the way from ship news to sports reporting. In this way I found myself sitting opposite the most powerful figure i

16、n the boxing world.There was nothing spectacular in Mr. Jacobs manner or appearance; but when he spoke about prizefights, he was no longer a bland little man but a colossus who sounded the way Napoleon must have sounded when he reviewed a battle. You knew you were listening to Number One. His saying

17、 something made it true.We discussed what to him was the only important element in successful promoting-how to please the crowd. So far as he was concerned, there was no mystery to it. You put killers in the ring and the people filled you arena. You hire boxing artists-men who are adroit at feinting

18、, parrying, weaving, jabbing, and dancing, but who dont pack dynamite in their fists-and you wind up counting your empty seats. So you searched for the killers and sluggers and maulers-fellows who could hit with the force of a baseball bat.I ask Mr. Jacobs if he was speaking literally when he said p

19、eople came out to see the killer.“They dont come out to see a tea party,” he said evenly. “They come out to see the knockout. They come out to see a man hurt. If they think anything else, theyre kidding themselves.”Recently a young man by the name of Benny Paret was killed in the ring. The killing w

20、as seen by millions; it was on television. In the twelfth round he was hit hard in the head several times, went down, was counted out, and never came out of the coma.The Paret fight produced a flurry of investigations. Governor Rockefeller was shocked by what happened and appointed a committee to as

21、sess the responsibility. The New York State Boxing Commission decided to find out what was wrong. The District Attorneys office expressed its concern. One question that was solemnly studied in all three probes concerned the action of the referee. Did he act in time to stop the fight? Another questio

22、n had to do with the role of the examining doctors who certified the physical fitness of the fighters before the bout. Still another question involved Mr. Parets manager; did he rush his boy into the fight without adequate time to recuperate from the previous one?In short, the investigation looked i

23、nto every possible cause except the real one. Benny Paret was killed because the human fist delivers enough impact, when directed against the head, to produce a massive hemorrhage in the brain. The human brain is the most delicate and complex mechanism in all creation. It has a lacework of millions

24、of highly fragile nerve connections. Nature attempts to protect this exquisitely intricate machinery by encasing it in a hard shell. Fortunately, the shell is thick enough to withstand a great deal of pounding. Nature, however, can protect man against everything except man himself. Not every blow to

25、 the head will kill a man-but there is always the risk of concussion and damage to the brain. A prizefighter may be able to survive even repeated brain concussions and go on fighting, but the damage to his brain may be permanent.In any event, it is futile to investigate the referees role and seek to

26、 determine whether he should have intervened to stop the fight earlier. This is not where the primary responsibility lies. The primary responsibility lies with the people who pay to see a man hurt. The referee who stops a fight too soon from the crowds viewpoint can expect to be booed. The crowd wan

27、ts the knockout; it wants to see a man stretched out on the canvas. This is the supreme moment in boxing. It is nonsense to talk about prizefighting as a test of boxing skills. No crowd was ever brought to its feet screaming and cheering at the sight of two men beautifully dodging and weaving out of

28、 each others jabs. The time the crowd comes alive is when a man is hit hard over the heart or the head, when his mouthpiece flies out, when blood squirts out of his nose or eyes, when he wobbles under the attack and his pursuer continues to smash at him with poleax impact.Dont blame it on the refere

29、e. Dont even blame it on the fight managers. Put the blame where it belongs-on the prevailing mores that regard prize-fight as a perfectly proper enterprise and vehicle of entertainment. No one doubts that many people enjoy prizefighting and will miss it if it should be thrown out. And that is preci

30、sely the point.2.1.1.2 空间连续体(continuity of space)象时间连续体一样,空间或方位连续体一般也是通过句首或段首表示方位的状语链;来实现的,这个链也包括非状语的连续体标记词项。Half a mile to the west, the main road crosses the water of Leith by a bridge of 1841. Immediately to the north is the old Colt bridge, a late 18th-century rubblebuilt single segmental arch.

31、By the bridge Roseburn Street leads to Roseburn House, a 16th-century tower with 17th- and 18th-century additions, built originally by Mungo Russel, an Edinburgh burgessBeyond the bridge, on the north side in Murray-field Avenue, is the church of the Good Shepherd, an interesting work by Sir Robert

32、Lorimer, 1899, in neo-Perpendicular style with some unusual details, including its low proportion and buttress dividing the west window. At the top of the same street is Murryayfield House, a fine 3-storey mansion of 1735 built for Archibald Murray, advocate.To the west on the main road is Murrayfie

33、ld Parish ChurchOpposite is 2.1.1.3 人物连续体(continuity of participants)典型的人物连续体通过语法上的主语或主题实现。当新的人物被引入篇章时,自然的选择是名词(短语)形式,引入后,该人物一般用代词来指称,但如果指称同一人物的两个指称词之间间隔过大则会引起歧义,加重篇章接受者处理过程的负担,这时须用名词(短语)而不用代词。另外,两个指称某一特定人物的指称词之间如果出现指称其他人物的指称词,也会引起歧义,因而从指称一个人物转换到指称另一个人物时,须用名词(短语),尤其当该人物在构成故事线索的行为和时间链中起重要作用时更应如此。对人物指

34、称的研究还表明,当开始一个新篇章单位尤其是主要篇章单位时,即使没有引起歧义之虞,也使用名词(短语)。一个连续体中的人物被过分标记(overmarked),也就是说在使用代词指称即可的地方使用了名词(短语)时,即发生人物连续体的“转移”;从指称一人物转换到另一人物或从人物连续体转换到另一类型的连续体时,即发生了人物连续体的“中断”。前面已经讲过转移和中断是篇章单位边界的标志,具有篇章功能。人物连续体是叙事篇章类型的基本特点。因而它常和时间和行为连续体紧密联系在一起。其他篇章类型也显示人物连续体,如说明类和论辩类篇章以及人物描写类篇章,与叙事篇章不同的是,在这些篇章类型中缺少行为连续体和显性的时间

35、连续体。在程序性篇章中,人物连续体一般是隐性的。Marc Chagall (1887-) was born in Vitebsk, Russia. He found post-revolutionary Russia, with its official anti-religious policy, increasingly difficult to work in, and, in 1892, he emigrated to France. Here he continued to paint in a personal style based on a complex mixture or

36、 the Russian icon and Russian peasant art, using themes from Russian fairy tales and Jewish folklore. At the same time he combines Fauvist colour with Cubist form.2.1.1.4 主题连续体(continuity of topics)人物连续体对作为主题项的人物、动物或被作为人物对待的事物的一连串指称构成的连续体,而主题连续体则指对作为主题项的非人物、动物项的一连串指称构成的连续体。主题连续体与人物连续体相似,它可以出现于多种类型的篇

37、章,并与人物连续体互补。与人物连续体不同的是,它基本上是非叙事类篇章连续体,常出现于说明和论辩类篇章中,描写和指导类篇章中也多有使用。Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) is not a true cedar but a kind of cypress found from Alaska to California. It grows rapidly in mild wet western areas to 30m, but is slow in dry places. It is often grown as a hedge, clipping well, a

38、nd is a useful forest tree to grow in the shade of old larch woods, giving a light, strong timber2.1.1.5 行为连续体(continuity of action)Givon(1983)研究行为连续体时将其与叙事篇章结合起来,他认为 行为连续体与时间性紧密相关。首先,篇章行为顺序常遵循实际行为顺序,即所谓的时间序列(temporal sequentiality);其次,连续行为间一般时间间隔不大,即所谓的时间毗邻。因此,Givon的时间连续体与前面提到的经验映象相似。Ann was seized

39、 with a panic. A sob broke from her throat. She ran for the door. But she was too late. A black figure dropped from the bookcase to the ground and, as Ann reached out her hands to the door, a scarf was whipped about her mouth, strifling her cry. She was jerked back into the room, but her fingers had

40、 touched the light switch by the door, and as she stumbled and fell, the room was lighted up. Her assailant fell upon her, driving the breath out of her lungs, and knotted the scarf tightly at the back of her head. 篇章模式3.1. Problem-solution Pattern (问题-解决模式)问题-解决模式的宏观结构一般由情景(situation)、问题(problem)、反

41、应(response)、评价(evaluation)或结果(result)四个成分组成。各个成分既可以由一个小句或句子充当,又可以由两个或更多个小句或句子组成(optional)。其中,“情景”有时在某类语篇(如广告等)中可有可无,“反应”指解决问题的办法,“评价或结果”有三种可能:一是肯定评价后在提供“依据、理由”(basis),这个依据或理由可有可无;二是肯定结果后在提供肯定评价,这个肯定评价可有可无;三是肯定结果和评价结合在一表述中。如图所示:Situation (optional)Aspect of Situation Requiring a Response (i.e. Proble

42、m)orPositive EvaluationBasis (optional)ResponseorPositive ResultPositive Evaluation (optional)Positive Result/ Evaluation Combined in a single statementFigure 1Most people like to take a camera with them when they travel abroad.(S) But all airports nowadays have X-ray security screening and X rays c

43、an damage film.(P) One solution to this problem is to purchase a specially designed lead-line pouch. (R)These are cheap and can protect film from all but strongest X rays.(E)Situation-problem-response-evaluation/result一般说来,问题-解决模式的结束标志是对“问题”提出了有效的解决方式,提供了肯定的评价(或结果),但如果采取的“反应”可能没有或完全没有解决问题,评价或结果是否定的,

44、语篇生产者可能转而求助于其它解决办法,这样问题-解决模式就会出现循环,直至找到有效的解决办法,如图所示:Situation (optional)ProblemorNegative Evaluation and/or ResultResponseorPositive Evaluation and/or Result (all 3 options as in Figure 1)=END OF STORY AND PATTERNFigure 2 问题-解决模式是英语中极为常见的语篇模式,经常用于说明文、广告、科技文章、实验报告、新闻报道以及故事、小说等文学作品中。同时该模式在词汇标志(lexical

45、 signs)方面也有鲜明的特色。最突出的莫过于语篇中有时出现problem, solution, result 等明显的词汇标志。McCarthy(2002:79)对该模式个组成成分中经常出现的词汇标志做了小结:问题成分的词汇标志有concern, difficulty, dilemma, drawback, hamper, hind(er/ance), obstacle, problem, snag等;反应的词汇标志有:change, combat, come up with, develop, find, measure, respon(d/se),等;解决与结果的词汇标志有:answe

46、r, consequence, effect, outcome, result, solution, (re)solve等;评价的词汇标志有:(in)difference, manage, overcome, succeed, (un)successful, viable, work,等。3.2. Claim-counterclaim Pattern (主张-反应模式)主张-反应模式又可称为主张-反主张模式,该模式的宏观结构有“情景”、“主张”、“反应”等三个组成部分,而情景很多情况下是可有可无,所以说,该模式的核心部分就是主张与反应。在主张部分,作者陈述他人或自己的已经说过的但没有认同其真实

47、性的观点或情况,有时可根据需同时提供该观点或情况的理由;在反应部分,作者对主张部分中的观点或情况的真实性阐明自己的看法或观点,即支持或反驳、肯定或否定(修正主张部分提出的观点或情况,并一般给出相应的理由。需指出的是,“反应”有时不一定是作者本人的看法或观点,而是作者提出另一方的反主张或者是描述真实的情况,如下图所示:Situation (optional)ClaimDenial or Negative Evaluation of ClaimReason for ClaimReason for Denial Figure 3Correction Reason for Correction Rea

48、son for AffirmAffirm Every other critic has said that On Food and Cooking is brilliant, a revelation and a unique combination of scientific insight and literacy which sweeps aside all myth and jargon as none have done before. McGees book is indeed well written, is full of good things and is good to have on the shelves as a continuing source of reference and quotes. But it also has its fair share of mistakes, omissions and misalignments of emphasis.Winter (1984)对主张-反应模式的词汇标志作了小结:主张部分的词汇标志有:assertion, assumption, belief, claim, conclusion, expect, feel, guess, illusion, image, proposition,

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