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1、英文食品科技论文的特点,一、文体结构,标题（title)摘要或提要（abstract)引言、前言或介绍（introduction)材料和方法（materials and methods)结果和讨论（results and discussion)结论（conclusions)感谢（acknowledgement)、参考文献（references)和附录(appendix),1.标题(title),标题部分除了论文的题目外，一般还包括作者署名、单位或地址等。标题的特点是：主题突出、明确，结构简洁、逻辑严谨。使读者一见标题便知论文主旨和涉及的内容，吸引住目标读者。,标题一般首先提出中心词（往往以名词
2、为主）。中心词后附加修饰语，以后置定语为多。常常用一些纽带词，中文用“对”、“的”、“和”、“在”等，而英语常介词、分词、形容词、不定式等,例：,The effect of temperature on the storage properties of apple fruit温度对苹果贮藏品质的影响Regulation and control of recombinant DNA experimentation对DNA重组试验的规定与控制影响冰淇淋质量的诸因素Various factors influencing(affecting)the quality of ice cream,标题的长
3、短：不超过12或16个词，以8个词为佳。为防止标题过长，应突出关键词，避免词语重复，或者使用副标题。,英文论文标题的要求,格式1：所有单词的字母均大写，国内外许多学术刊物、会议论文采用这种排版方式。TECHNOLOGIES IN FRUIT STORAGE AND PROCESSING格式2：单词的头一个字母大写，冠词、介词和连词如不出现在句首不需要大写。A study of Assay Procedure fro Protein Concentration格式3:首字母大写，其余字母均小写。Gel filtration and affinity chromatography,作者署名和地址,
4、在英文标题之下署名按照对本研究所做贡献大小排列单位地址位于作者姓名之下，单位地址由小到大的顺序书写科室，所在单位，所在地（城市、省、国名），邮编在标题或署名之后加注“*”以表示说明，说明内容置于标题所在页的底部，为题注（footnotes),2.摘要或提要（abstract),是文章的缩影或主旨要点是对文献内容的准确、扼要的表达，不加补充解释和评论面对的读者群比整篇论文或专业学术刊物本身的读者群要大得多有字数限制：150-300以精练的语言介绍文章的目的、论点、实验结果、结论和建议等。结构固定、内容简洁完整，应该让读者了解全文的梗概，使其判定是否有必要阅读全文。,概述（summary),与摘要
5、很近，往往被看成是同义词。Summary的内容充分而简洁，篇幅可以是一段也可能是数页。一般独立成篇，可以位于正文之前，也可以作为论文的结尾。,关键词（key words，keywords),关键词作为keywords index被列入文献情报的检索系统，有利于全文的检索和交流。一般4-6个，最少2个。在论文中一般在摘要之后，正文之前，多用名词或名词词组形式，不用动词形式。关键词之间可以加逗号或分号，或加间隔进行分隔，最后一个关键词后面一般不加任何标点符号。Keywords:Apple physical properties storage analysisKey Words:Food,proc
6、essing method,optimal control,quality,3.引言、前言或介绍（introduciton),包括题义、研究现状、对以往相关研究的评述和研究目的首先，介绍本研究课题的目的或假设，从理论和实践上说明它的价值；然后，阐明研究背景，介绍或评述前人的相关研究情况；最后，阐明本研究要解决的问题。常常说明文章各部分的组织结构。在文中是独立完整的一部分，篇幅可为一至数段。,研究背景：以过去为基点写，指出就这一课题进行过什么相关研究，有何结论，存在何问题等。一般采用过去时。引言中有一段阐明本研究目的和基本内容的文字，通常使用一般过去式。,常用句型,Sb.tested sth.a
7、nd they found.Sb.reported sth.and they observed.Sb.gave sth.and that indicating.Sb.carried out experiments and the result showed.Sb.conducted on sth.Sb.performed.Sb.made.例：Observations(investigations/studies/experiments)on.were carried out(made/conducted/performed)by sb.who found that,4.材料与方法（materi
8、als and methods),包括实验条件、材料、设计或使用的方法根据食品科技论文类型和研究内容的不同，这个部分可以有不同的写法，也可以用不同的标题，如Experimental method;test and equipment;experimental procedure,description of experiment,(1)实验方法（experimental method)试验设计 type of experimental design 重复次数 number of replications 统计分析 statistical analysis(2)仪器（equipment)实验方法
9、中所用仪器，仪器名称，制造厂家（model,manufacturers name and address)自己设计的仪器（measurement set up),(3)食品品质分析（evaluation of food product)介绍研究对象（名称、数量、来源）营养成分分析 nutrients analyzed微生物 microbiological quality物理品质 physical quality化学品质 chemical quality感官评定 sensory quality毒性 toxicological quality热学性质 thermal quality,一般是先交代试
10、验的时间、地点、材料、数理、条件、环境；然后描述实验的设计、基本过程和步骤；最后还要说明本试验的统计方法。偏理论模型的大富翁，要说明各参数、假设和理论模型，以便在后文中讨论。文章中包括不同的试验项目或不同的研究模型，可以再列小标题分别论述。时态和语态方面，主要使用一般过去时和被动语态。,5.结果和讨论（results and discussion),篇幅占全文的一半或更多，大多附有图表。可分为两部分分别写Results 和Discussion，特别是结果和讨论可以明显区分开的情况下。有时，在结果和讨论的最后就结束论文，因为在分析讨论本试验或研究的各项结果时，结论就已经得出了。针对文中不同的试验
11、或不同的研究模型，可以在结果和讨论中加入小标题分别加以论述。结果和讨论部分因为是客观地介绍实验结果及由此引发的讨论，所以通常使用一般过去时，被动语态。在讨论中涉及本试验的特定内容时，应采用过去时叙述。在判断或讨论中可以用一般现在时或一般将来时，可以用人格化的主语及主动语态句，以表明客观性以及作者的主观认识、结论和见解。,Soluble pectinFormation of soluble pectin is usually associated with apple softening,but higher concentrations of this material were found
12、in the initial weight loss of fruit than in controls(Table 1).The final texture may reflect the balance of different proces promoting and inhibiting softening and this balance could vary from one experiment to another.,Prediction of meat quality from robotic measurementsThis is summarized in Table 1
13、,which shows how the optical data collected robotically at the six positions were correlated with meat quality.As expected,correlations with meat quality with fiber-optic reflectance tended to be strong at position 4 and 5.Two predictions are given from each quality attributer:r,with the wavelength
14、used,and R,using up to two extra wavelengths.,6.结论（conclusions),结论是对本文的论述给出清晰、明确的结论，结论中可以包含必要的建议、文章内容的应用前景、结果和讨论所印证或引申出的问题等。结论应该全面、明确、合乎逻辑，但要突出论文的发展，它可以让读者在此基础上进一步思考或做进一步研究。结论可以用一般现在时或一般将来时，因为它是从写文章的当时出发，而且叙述的可看成一般规律。结论中涉及的文中具体事实，通常用一般过去时或现在完成时。,The results of the sonic test are promising,but furthe
15、r research is needed to refine the sonic method to improve the accuracy and make the test simpler and faster.It can be concluded that if the temperature was controlled between 0-5 oC,this variety of apple could be stored for 2 months.,7.感谢（acknowledgements)、参考文献（references)、附录（appendix),感谢一般写在正文之后，向
16、为本研究提供帮助、指导、资助的单位和个人表示致谢。AcknowledgementsThis work was funded by the U.K.Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council.The authors are indebted to Mr.G.E.Gale for his assistance in the design and construction of test equipment,and to Mr.S.Crook for assistance with statistical analysis,参考文献列
17、出文中所参考的资料，便宜于查看与本文论述或引用的内容直接相关的资料。参考文献的写法有两种，一种是按姓氏顺序排列，另一种是按出现顺序排列。参考文献内容：引文作者姓名：姓（英、美人的last name)在前，名在后。et al.：如果作者人名很多（一般大于5个）,可以在第一作者姓名之后用et al.(拉丁语，et=and,al.=others)。书名（文章名）、出版社、年份如引用同一作者、同一年份几份资料，要在出版年份之后加a,b,以示区别。Abbott,J.A.(1997a);Abbott J.A.(1997b)页数（P.:page,PP.:pages)、期刊名称、卷、期、年代等。,附录一般放在
18、文章的最后（有时放在参考文献之前），可以是论文中数学模型、数学公式、系统构造等的较为详细的说明或推导。如果论文中有很多符号和缩写（symbols and abbreviations)，则可以把它们汇总放在文章的开头或论文的结尾，以方便读者查阅。,二、修辞特点,用词方面：,专业术语较多，一词一意，词义专一，能够准确地表达科学含义；许多词汇来源于希腊语和拉丁语（如果altitudes源于拉丁语altitudo)，前后前缀出现频率较高（如biosensor,biosynthesis,twofold)，同时文章中还大量使用缩写词（如SSC:soluble solid contents)。,用词方面：用
19、词精确、结构简洁。文章中多用介词短语、分词短语、形容词短语、动词不定式短语等，使句子结构简洁而信息容量大。语法方面：被动语态，特别是施动者的被动语态句远比日常英语广泛。这是因为论文所要研究、报道的是科学事实本身，而不是做的人（施动者）。另外，被动语态表达准确、客观、不带感情色彩，这正是科技论文所需要的。所以它是一般科技文体的特征句型。此外，为了表明作者对事物和现象的看法，或者对问题的探讨时，常常用虚拟婉转的，含有假定、设想条件的句子。祈使句和it句型也频繁使用。,It could be controlled better if the optimal temperature and time
20、combination has been found.The above equation would become equality if we assure the condition is frictionless.Turn on the power and then put the sample into the machine.,由于注重事实和逻辑推理，为了完整而充分地说明问题，论文书写中会出现多个分句并列或复合句中从句套从句的现象，特别是定语从句，从而在文中出现关系复杂的长句。为了避免这种现象，可采用数个短句来表达一个特别长的复合句。,食品科技论文常用的时态多为过去时、现在时，修辞
21、手法比较单调，注重事实和逻辑，常借用图表、公式来表示概念和说明文章内容。,1.简洁精练的文字,科技论文是摆事实、讲道理，用客观的态度，使用准确、简练、朴素、生动的语言描述客观世界以及论述作者的观点。科技论文一般句子较长，有时一个句子长达百字，虽然可以借助介词、关系词、连接词把各成分连成一个整句，使共通顺明了，但这种长句仍然会使读者颇费思考，不一目了然。除非必需，过长的句子还是分成几个短句为好（10-20个词）,后者比前者更简洁、通用,The problem is that-The problem isUsed for drying purpose-for dryingIt consists e
22、ssentially of three different parts-It has three partsIn spite of the fact that-ThoughAccording to the experimental results in Figure 1 and 2,we can find the following phenomena-From Figure 1 and 2,we can find the following phenomena.,使用动名词、连词+过去分词、动词不定式、减少使用it先行结构、名词词组等能够精简结构,After they were boiled
23、,the potatoes were ready for the taste panels.-After being boiled,the potatoes were ready for the taste panels.As has been stated in section 1-As stated in section 1.When it was heated-When heatedWe stored the tomatoes under 20oC condition.Our objective was to find out the shelf life of tomatoes.-We
24、 stored the tomatoes under 20oC condition in order to find out the shelf-life of tomatoes.It can be seen that further research is needed-Obviously,further research is needed.This tester is designed to measure hardness of food and it is operated by hand-A hand-operated food hardness tester.,2.连接手段,次序
25、连接。在论文提到生理过程、加工过程、实验操作：First(ly),then,second(ly),the next stage(step),subsequently,finally,followed by.补加、类推、举例承接：in addition,moreover,furthermore,similarly,for example,for instance.解释和因果承接：this is to say,in other words,therefore,hence,thus,so that,consequently.转折承接，用于前后对比：but,however,on the other h
26、and,although强调承接，突出或强调某一方面：indeed,above all,in fact,especially,in particular可能承接，使上下文连接，前后呼应：likely,perhaps,probably,possibly 归纳承接，归纳上文，引出下文，使文章前后清晰、连贯：in conclusion,to sum up,to conclude,in general,to summarize,使用合适的连接词，可以使内容有逻辑性和科学性。连接词放在句首有强调作用，多数情况下用在句中。另外，要注意采用多种连接词，避免重复与单调。用词要合理、准确，连接要自然。,文章中的
27、一致、照应：关于人称的选择有两种理论。传统上，主张使用第三人称或无人称句，多用被动语态句子。理由是科学论述应当客观，不带有作者的感情和偏向。现代派主张用第一、第二人称，把论文写亲切、自然，认为传统写法太古板、曲折。目前大多数食品科技英语文章是按照传统写法写作的。注意人称照应，主谓一致。注意数的照应、比较照应。,More water are needed for the hot water treatment of the vegetables.(are 应改为is)The new designed equipment is quite economical.(new 应该改为newly),3.
28、语气的强弱,科技论文要尽量写得生动、可读性强。避免软弱无力，词句冗长。,主动语态比被动语态生动：It will be seen from the figure that-The figure shows that“形、声、动”动词比“存在”动词生动The higher temperature has good effects.-The higher temperature shows good effects.省略不必要的关系代词The results that they obtained were impressing-The data they obtained were impressi
29、ng.整篇文章要保持文体上的一致，避免在文中使用不规范的词句。,其它技术和语言问题,缩略词：一些在文章中反复出现的术语、团体或组织的名称：（USDA,US Department of Agriculture;IFT,Institute of Food Technologists;DNA,deoxyribonucleic acid)数字+度量衡单位词：15ft(foot 或feet)50 rpm(revolutions per minute)Etc.=et cetera=and others,i.e.=id est=that is,公式：另一起一行，有序号。对式中符号或参数解释时，常用where
30、，相当于文中，式中A simple analysis of the behavior of dissolved oxygen(DO)probes indicates that their response is related to the probe constant,k:K=.Where D=oxygen diffusivity in the membrane,and d=membrane thickness,斜体词书名、篇名、期刊名小标题外来词强调词解释或定义介绍的科技术语某物的命名，拉丁语学名中的属名、种名,食品科技论文的翻译和写作,一、翻译理论和技巧,信：忠实原文，正确表达原文意思；
31、达：译文通顺、流畅；雅：在前面两条的基础上，使译文生动、雅致。,1.翻译中的改换,词义的改换词类、句子成分、修饰词的转换各类从句间的相互转换肯定和否定的改换,名词转动词：On completion of the heat treatment the skin color was immediately measured.一旦结束热处理，表皮的颜色立刻被测量。热处理一结束，就测其表皮颜色。,动词转名词：This product differs from the previous one by hardness.这个产品和前一产品的区别在于硬度。这个产品与产一产品的硬度不同。,语态转换：被动转换成
32、主动。测定完成了，分为。，称为。，与。相。，加以。，旨在等。在英文中改为被动语态。The samples were divided into three groups.Figure 1 is linked to Table 2.The experiment was carried to prove the theory.,句子成分转换，主语转补语：Much has been done on the high temperature processing of food products.关于高温对食品的处理已经研究得很多了。有关食品高温处理的研究已有很多。,2.翻译中的增减、重复,词的增加：中
33、文中的“和”可以用来连接两词，但不能连接两个分句；英语中的“and”可以在上述两场合应用。Potatoes were put into boiled water with 5g of NaCl，and boiled for 10minutes.把土豆放入沸水中，放入盐5克，加热10分钟水沸腾后，放入土豆和5克，继续煮沸10分钟。,句子逻辑不清楚时，可以在译文中需要加词。5 毫克/千克处理组，颜色很好。In the treatment with 5 mg/kg,the fruit showed better surface color.Most mRNAs in bacteria are uns
34、table with half-lives of 2-4 minutes at 50OC。在细菌细胞内，大多数mRNAs是不稳定的，它们的半衰期在50oC下是2-4分钟。大多数细胞mNRAs不稳定，其在50oC下的半衰期是2-4 minutes.,加入背景解释，否则由于文化、生活背景差异难以理解。酸菜是东北人喜食的一种食品，它可以在合适的条件下保存数月。People in the northeast of China are fond of eating a kind of pickled cabbage,which is preserved in big earthen jars and t
35、he cabbage can be stored for several months under proper storage conditions.,词的减少Previous studies indicated that sonic transmission could be applied to determine food quality.过去的一些研究工作曾证明，声波传导可以用来检测食品质量。影响水果贮藏的因素包括内因和外因两个方面。Fruit storage qualities are affected by the internal and external factors.,中
36、文的“进行研究”、“加以利用”、“有所报道”、“做了说明”等类似结构译成英语时，可略去结构动词，将动物名词译成为谓语动词，多用被动语态形式。The pH meter should be calibrated on the day it is used.pH计应该在使用的当天进行校正。,汉语中常用重复表示强调，而在英语中则可以减译。物质是由分子组成的，分子又是由原子组成的。All mater consists of molecules,and molecules of atoms.,3.时间、条件、原因、让步关系的译法,时间关系：在.之时,在.之前,在.之后,到.为止等.翻译时，可译成时间状语从
37、句，用when,as,before,after等引导。也可译成介词短语：at that time,at the beginning of the experiment,in five hours,within three hours,previous to the heating,upon the arrival of the samples,Higher firmness can be obtained only if the optimal processing time and temperature are selected.只有选择最优的处理温度和时间，才能获得较高的硬度。只有处理温
38、度和时间达到最优水平时，硬度才能达到较高值。,其它时间关系：限制时every time,whenever,by the time;紧接时as soon as,once;延续时since,till。The puncture test was carried out as soon as the pork meat was boiled for 10 minutes at 100oC。将猪肉在100OC下煮制10分钟后，立刻做穿透实验。The processing was stopped till the bacteria reached target number.细菌数达到目标值时，过程停止。
39、,条件关系译法：译成条件状语。条件可分为真实条件和虚拟条件两种。The body will not benefit from the nutrients in the food if it is not eaten.食品如果不被吃掉，其营养就不会被人体吸收。If we do not control the processing conditions,some abnormal phenomena might occur.如果我们不控制处理条件，一些不正常的现象就会发生。,原因关系的译法：译成原因状语从句、介词短语、分词短语、定语从句或其他结构。从原因的意义、语气的强弱来看，because 最强
40、，since 次之，as又次之，for语气最弱。Because 表示原因和理由时一般放在主句之后。For 作“因为”解释时，不能放在句首。,The fuel must be finished,for the engine stopped.燃料肯定用完了，因数发动机停了。Since displacement has direction,velocity also has direction.因为位移有方向，所以速度也有方向。As heat makes things move,it is a form of energy.既然热可以使物质运动，它也是一种能量形式。,表示原因的其它词汇：owing
41、to,on account of,due to.,让步关系：指先退让一步，承认事实或现象，然后转入主句，摆脱从句中所述情况，语气显得有所加强。可以译成让步状语从句、介词短语等。Although the apple varieties were different,the effects of surface coating were almost the same.虽然苹果种类不同，但表面涂膜的效果基本一致。Friction is often useful on food transportation lines despite its disadvantages.虽然摩擦有不利的一面，它在食
42、品运输线上往往是有用的。,4.长句及复杂句的翻译,主语从句：有从属连词that,whether,if;连接代词what,which,sho,whose；连接副词when,where,why,how等引导的主语从句，一般采用顺译法，把主语从句译在句首。,That the techniques of high pressure processing is widely applied to food production is known to all of us.高压技术广泛应用于食品生产，这是我们大家都知道的。Whether this experiment could prove it is
43、still a question.这个试验能否证明它，这还是个问题。,表语从句：顺译法。The relevant characteristics of these microorganisms are that they should be non-pathogenic,easy to maintain and cheap to grow.这些微生物的相关特性是：无致病性，易于维护，培养成本低。,宾语从句：顺译法From the evaporation of water we know that liquids can turn into gases under certain conditi
44、ons.从水的蒸发现象可以得知，液体在一定的条件下可以转化成气体。,同位语从句The thermostat is based on the fact that different materials have different coefficients of expansion.各种金属的膨胀系统不同，这一事实是恒温器的基本原理。,定语从句：The species that accepts electrons in an oxidation-reduction reaction is referred to as the oxidizing agent.Table 1 lists some
45、microorganisms which have been reported to be metabolically able to carry out the biodegradation of some of these compounds.Upon special circumstances the streamlines of a surface of discontinuity become free streamlines,which are streamlines along which the pressure is constant.The basis principle
46、of continuous culture is applicable to any scale of operation,especially in the form of the chemostat,which has been the most successful type on the laboratory scale.,状语从句：时间、地点、条件、让步、行为、原因、目的、结果、比较等。可以译在句首，或采用转换译法译为并列句，或者主从句互相转换。If a stress lies well within the elastic limit,it can be removed and r
47、epeated as soon as it desired without causing rupture.,The food technologist can usually recognize fats when he sees them because they are quite different both in their physical properties and in their chemical composition from the other two main food constituents,carbohydrate and protein.,Computer
48、control is the current by-word in fermentation technology and will soon reach the point where you dare not admit that your fermenters are not coupled to a computer;unfortunately,amidst the improvements this brings,we are beginning to see cases of the old dogma instruments prevent creative thinking.,
49、It is possible,particularly in the case of an empty fermenter,that a vessel under vacuum could be deformed by the external air pressure,but the main reason for avoiding pressure below atmospheric within the fermenter is that the non-sterile air of environment could be drawn through any small leak in
50、 the welded seams of the vessel or pipeline,or through joints or valves.,英文食品科技文章写作的一般方法和应注意的问题,一、前言的写法,写作时应该考虑到文章的连接过渡手段和内容的衔接照应，学会使用一些常用结构句型和表达方式。由于论文内容和论题的不同，前言部分各有侧重。,前言的主要内容,阐述论文的目的、宗旨、和中心论题综述前人在本领域内所做的工作、发现以及与本论文内容的关系介绍必要的背景知识探讨本课题的研究价值和意义介绍本论文的研究手段、数据和资料来源等介绍正文的框架结构,(1)目的与意图,指出目的的中文基本句子结构为：本文
