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1、1.Definition of figure of speech,A figure of speech is a word or phrase which is used to create a particular mental image or effect,and which does not have its usual or literal meaning.,We are said to be speaking or writing figuratively when we use words in non-literal senses to lend force to an ide
2、a,to heighten effect,or to create atmosphere.For example,it is more vivid and colorful to say that stars“twinkly like diamonds”in the sky,than to say simply that they“shine brightly in the sky.Similarly,“Imperialism is a paper tiger”is an expression more suggestive of outward ferocity and inner weak
3、ness than the literal statement“Imperialism appears to be strong but inwardly it is weak.”,2.Different figures of speech,1)simile 2)metaphor 3)metonymy 4)synecdoche5)personification 6)euphemism7)hyperbole,8)irony 9)transferred epithet 10)oxymoron11)pun,1.simile,A simile makes a comparison,but is dif
4、ferent from an ordinary,literal comparison.When we say“Jim looks like his brother”,we are making an ordinary literal comparison,for(a)we are comparing two like elements Jim and his brother are both human beings;and(b)we mean Jim is literally like his brother in appearance.,But when we say“Jim and hi
5、s brother are as like as two peas”,we are using a simile,for(a)we are comparing two unlike elements human beings and peas;and(b)we dont mean Jim and Billy are literally like peas,but only that they have one thing in common with peas:great similarity in appearance.,Simile is a figure of speech in whi
6、ch two essentially unlike things are explicitly compared,usually by means of words like,as,or as if.It makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic in common.,Characteristics of a parative words:like/as;b.tenor;vehicle c.totally different things of dif
7、ferent properties.d.one quality in common,E.g.They were packed into the bus like sardines.tenor vehicleThe wind is biting into my skin like a mad dog.tenor vehicleWhy are you rushing like a chicken with its head cut off?tenor vehicleIt was snowing heavily and a thick white blanket covered everything
8、.The branches of the bare trees tenorlooked like white arms against the night sky.vehicle,Patterns of simile,a.X is like Y My wifes new hat is like a lighthouse（灯塔）.Living without an aim is like sailing without a compass.b.Xas/(asas)/as if/though Y You cannot hope to move me,as you cannot expect the
9、 sun to rise in the west.Men fear death,as children fear to go in the dark.(Francis Bacon),c.X is to A what Y is to B Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body.Judicious（明智的，审慎的）praise is to children what the sun is to flowers.d.X is no more than Y A home without love is no more than a bod
10、y without a soul.e.X and Y（This is a special simile,which often occurs in English proverbs.）A word and a stone let go cannot be recalled.Truth and roses have thorns about them.,2.metaphor,A metaphor,like a simile,also makes a comparison between two unlike elements,but unlike a simile,this comparison
11、 is implied rather than stated.In a simile,the words like,as,as so are used to make the comparison,as in Jim was as cunning as a fox.The world is like a stage.In a metaphor,however,the comparison would appear simply as(1a)Jim was a fox.(2a)The world is a stage.,So metaphor is a figure of speech in w
12、hich a word or phrase that ordinarily and primarily denotes one thing is applied to another in an implied comparison.e.g.Water is the lifeblood of agriculture.tenor vehicleOur solar system includes the mother sun and her nine offspring.tenor vehicleMetaphors can be used in various forms.Nouns,verbs,
13、adjectives,and adverbs can all be used in a metaphorical way.,Patterns of metaphor,a.Full length metaphor:X is Y.Education is not the filling of a pail,but the lighting of a fire.(William B.Yeats)教育不是往桶里倒水，而是把火点燃。She was strangled in the net of gossip.,b.Compressed metaphor:If a metaphor states only
14、 one term of the comparison,leaving the other implicit,such a metaphor is compressed metaphor.There is only a tenor,and the vehicle is indicated by a verb,an adjective,an adverb,etc.The boy wolfed down the food the moment he grabbed it.My sister has starry eyes.,c.Extended metaphor:An extended metap
15、hor is a metaphor which is developed by a number of different figurative expressions,extending perhaps over several clauses or sentences,and involving several tenors and vehicles.Some books are to be tasted,others swallowed,and some few to be chewed and digested.(Francis Bacon),3.metonymy,Both meton
16、ymy and synecdoche fall into the category of substitution,using one thing to refer to another.Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another closely associated with it.It is to use something that has some connection with the subject to stand for the subject.The
17、 substituted name may be an attribute of that other thing or be closely associated with it.In other words,it involves a“change of name”,the substituted name suggesting the thing meant.E.g.,Men have heads/minds,women hearts.wisdom,reason kindnessThe two countries have never crossed swards with each o
18、ther.fightScepter(国王或女王在仪式中手持的)权杖 and Crown must tumble down.the ruling classOnly the knife can save him.doctor,operationShe reads Shakespeare to improve her English.Shakespeares worksThe pen is mightier than the sword.books,articles weapon,Metonymy can be derived from various sources from names of
19、persons,from animals,professions,locations or place names,etc.,as listed below:a.names of personsJohn Bull:England,or the English peopleUncle Sam:The United States of AmericaIvan:The Russian peopleJohn Doe:ordinary American citizen,b.animalsBritish Lion:England or the English governmentthe bear:The
20、former Soviet Union or the Soviet governmentc.parts of the bodyHeart:feelings or emotionsHead,brain:wisdom,intelligence,reasone.g.Use your brains.Gray hair:old age,d.professionsthe bar:the legal professione.g.He has been called to the bar.the bench:the position of judge or magistrate法官e.g.He has bee
21、n appointed to the bench.the veil:vocation of a nune.g.She took the veil at 20.the press:newspaper,newspaper reporterse.g.Hes meeting the press this morning.,e.location of government,of business or industrial enterprisesDowning Street:the British government or cabinetThe White House:the President of
22、 Executive branch of the U.S.governmentCapitol Hill:the Legislative branch of the U.S.governmentthe Pentagon:the U.S.military establishmentKremlin:the government of the former Soviet UnionFleet Street:the British pressWall Street:U.S.financial circlesMadison Avenue:American advertising industryHolly
23、wood:American film-making industryFoggy Bottom:U.S.State Department,4.synecdoche,Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole,the whole for a part,the specific for the general,the general for the specific,or the material for the thing made from it.For instance:,Great minds
24、think alike.PeoplePlease give us our daily bread.NecessitiesThe fox goes well with your cap.Muffler(厚围巾)made of foxs furHe trod the boards for a living.Stage Spring would vanish with the rose.Flowers,a.the part for the wholeHand:(1)member of a ships crew All hands on deck.(2)worker,laborer,helper Th
25、ey were short of hands at harvest time.Head:person He paid the workers$5 per head.,Heart:brave fellowYet there were some stout hearts who attempted resistance.(C.S.Forester)Legs:(coll.)persons on foot,the infantry（步兵）The legs could hardly keep up with the tanks（坦克）.Bread:food,esp.staple food主食Give u
26、s this day our daily bread.,b.the whole for the partName of country for group of people of that country Australia beat Canada at cricket（板球).(=the Australian team beat the Canadian team)Vehicle for engine,machine for mechanism of machine itself,etc.The car conked out（出故障，失灵）.The planes flamed out（突然
27、熄火）.The radio(TV)is out of order.Person for part of his bodyThen he cut me open and took out the appendix and stitched me up again.(=cut his abdomen open),c.The specific for the general,or the general for the specific Alas,that Spring should vanish with the rose!(Edward Fitzgerald)Rose=flowers in ge
28、neral the specific for the general What a despicable creature he is!Creature=man the general for the specific,d.Name of material for the thing made He walked the boards for a living.the stage She was dressed in silks and satins(缎子).dresses made of silk and satin Cottons suits you.garments made of co
29、ttonBetter be jocund（愉快的，开心的）with the fruitful Grape than sadden after none,or bitter,fruit.(E.Fitzgerald)wine,5.personification,Personification is a figure of speech in which inanimate objects or abstractions are represented with human qualities or form.For instance:The grimy,red-brick fortress wit
30、h its tall windows that had looked down grimly on the playground and playing fields had been swept away.The young moon lies on her back tonight as is her habit in the tropics.The springtime came,first to the plains and foothills,and then up to the mountain snows.Laziness travels so slowly that pover
31、ty soon overtakes him.(Benjamin Franklin)One day,fortune will smile to you.Mosquitoes were using my ankles for filling stations.The falling leaves are dancing in the wind.,6.euphemism,Euphemism is an indirect word or phrase that is often used to refer to something embarrassing or unpleasant,sometime
32、s to make it seem more acceptable than it really is.According to the Oxford Concise Dictionary,euphemism is the substitution of mild or vague roundabout expression for harsh or direct one;expression thus substituted.The great complexity and variety of scope and motive can be seen from this list of“t
33、rue words”and their euphemisms.,a.Death,illness,old age,etc-to die to pass away,to depart,to go to sleep,to go to the heaven-old agegetting on(in years);past ones prime;feeling ones age;second childhood-mad,feeble-minded not all there;soft in the head;of unsound mind;simple-minded-stupid pupil a slo
34、w learner;under-achiever-fat people weight-watcherThe motive for the euphemisms in this case seems to be to avoid hurting peoples feelings.,b.Toilet habits,etc-to urinate（小便）or to defecate（大便）go to the bathroom;do their business;answer natures call-Mens lavatory Gents;the john;the washroom;head(Navy
35、);water closet(W.C.)-Womens lavatory Ladies;the powder room;Mrs.JonesThe motive here is to avoid using the true words which are considered crude and indecent in polite conversation.,c.Poverty and Unemployment-dismiss,sack lay off;ease out;give he walking ticket;pink slip-pennilessout of pocket;hard
36、up;in reduced circumstances;badly off-in debt in difficulties;in embarrassing obligation to-the poor+the have-nots;the underprivileged;the disadvantaged-unemployed mother+welfare mother-living on dole（失业救济金）on relief;on welfare benefits-slums+sub-standard housing,The euphemisms used by the poor them
37、selves are to“soften”harsh reality,but the terms marked+often used by government personnel seem more to cover up governmental inability to solve social and economic problems.,d.menial jobs or professions of low social standing-a maid,housekeeper,etc domestic helper;day-help;live-in help-chief waiter
38、;waitress captain;hostess-real estate agent Realtor（房地产经纪人）-hairdresser理发师，美发师 beautician-rat-catcher捕鼠者，捕鼠器 exterminating engineer;pest control operator The motive here is to“uplift”these professions by name,if not by status.It reflects a sense of inferiority as well as a striving for“better things
39、”.,e.political and military activities-lies terminological inexactitude-aggression pre-emptive action;police action-retreat;rout phased withdrawal-admit defeat concede the victory to-concentration camps strategic villagers or hamlets-bombing and blasting of whole village Pacification of the enemy in
40、frastructure;softening up of enemy resistance;give massive air support The euphemisms here are in the true sense of the word“false”.They are used to cover up the true nature of events,deceiving the public with nice-sounding and pseudo-technical words.,7.hyperbole,Hyperbole is the deliberate use of o
41、verstatement or exaggeration to achieve emphasis.It is a figure of speech in which exaggeration is used for emphasis or effect.Instead of saying in plain language“She is a pretty girl”or“He laughed heartily”we could express the same ideas more emphatically by saying“She is the prettiest girl in the
42、world”or“He almost died laughing.”,Effective hyperbole,however,is more than just to emphasize something in exaggerated terms.In the hands of experienced writer it can be used to achieve various literary effects:to intensify emotion,to elevate a person or thing to heroic mythical status,or to poke fu
43、n at or ridicule.,I have got a million things to do before I leave on Tuesday.You could shave with the razor-sharp crease(皱褶)in his trousers.I love Ophelia.Forty thousand brothers could not,with all their quantity of love,make up my sum.A lie can travel half way around the world,while the truth is p
44、utting on its shoes.I will love thee still,my dear,Till all the seas gone dry and all the rocks melt with the sun,I will love thee still,my dearWhile the sands of life shall run.This made him roar like a thousand bulls.Its a crime to stay inside on such a beautiful day.(a great pity)A drop of ink ma
45、y make a million think.(George G Byron),8.irony,Irony is the use of words to express something different from and often opposite to their literal meaning.It is a figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant,the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of th
46、eir usual sense.,“Generally speaking,”said Miss Murdstone,“I dont like boys.How dye do,boy?”Under these encouraging circumstances,I replied that I was very well,and that I hoped she was the same,with such indifferent grace that Miss Murdstone disposed of me in two words,-“Wants manner!”This hard-wor
47、king student seldom reads more than an hour per week.How polite you are!You can even curse your own father.He was such a marvelous teacher that whenever he recognized a spark of genius,you could be sure hed water it.What a noble illustration of the tender laws of this favored country!They let the pa
48、upers go to sleep.,9.transferred epithet,Transferred epithet is an adjective or descriptive phrase that is shifted from the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with that noun.It is a figure of speech where an epithet is transferred from the noun it should rightly modify to another to whi
49、ch it does not really belong.Generally,the epithet is transferred from a person to a thing or idea.For instance,when we say“We spent sleepless night on a project”,the word sleepless is a transferred epithet,for nights cannot sleep.We really mean to say“We did not sleep for many nights while working
50、on the project.”Below are more examples:,The manager put a reassuring hand on my shoulder.I spoke to them in hesitant French.(The Grapes of Wrath)An awed hush fell upon the bystanders.The enemy fled in a blind haste.Even at that tortured moment,Soames Forsyle had the mind to enjoy the profit-making
