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1、语境与文学翻译（一）,林玉鹏,一、引言：何为语境,最早提出语境这一概念的是波兰的人类语言学家马林诺夫斯基（Malinowski）。他认为:“话语和环境紧密地结合在一起，语言环境对于理解语言来说必不可少。”他将语境分为两类，一类是情景语境（context of situation），另一类是文化语境（context of culture）。,1950年，英国语言学家弗斯（Firth）继承和发展了这一观点，他提出：语言除了指“语言环境”，即上下文的关系外，还包括“情景语境”，即语言和社会环境之间的关系。,语境的定义很广，不同学派与学科对其定义也不相同。概而言之，语境可分为内部语境和外部语境。内部语
2、境指语言的上下文，即词语的搭配，句式的选择，话语内部信息结构和形式等。外部语境指与言语交际相关的社会和文化语境等，它包括社会文化背景、社会政治背景、交际双方的社会心理因素、社会角色和交际双方的百科知识等。近年来，语境理论受到翻译学界的重视，作为影响翻译的重要因素而进入翻译研究领域。本文中我们主要关注语境对文学翻译的影响。为讨论方便，我们将语境区分为文化语境和政治语境。,二、文化语境与文学翻译,2.1文化语境文化语境即非语言性语境，指交际过程中某一话语结构表达某种特定意义所依赖的各种主客观因素，包括时间、地点、场合、话题、交际者的身份、地位、心理背景、文化背景、交际目的、交际方式、交际内容所涉及
3、的对象以及各种与话语结构同时出现的非语言符号等（Malinovski，1960）。,文化语境是各民族人们所处的文化环境，它是一种自然地理环境和社会环境，又是一种历史的积淀，是民族心理、历史、地理、风土人情、传统习俗、生活方式、文学艺术、行为规范、思维方式、意识形态、政治和社会制度、价值观念等的总和。Goodenough认为，文化主要不是物质的，而是它们“在人们头脑中的形态”（Goodenough，1964:36）。,国内论者也认为，“文化与其说是物质存在，不如说是心智的领悟，”(李运兴，2007:21)。同时，由于语言和文化密不可分，语言中也包含很多文化讯息，因此很多情况下语言用法本身就是文化
4、因素。,22诗歌翻译中的跨文化阐释 由于翻译是在两种语言文化之间进行的，所以文学翻译受到源语文化语境和译入语文化语境的影响，涉及对原作的跨文化阐释。对中国译者而言，在外译汉的情况下，译者的源语文化知识可以在阅读过程的各个层次影响诗的理解和意义阐释，这在翻译那些民族性强、文化色彩浓、与本族文化差异大的作品时尤为如此。汉诗外译时，目的语文化语境知识影响中国译者的目的语表达。,各民族由于其生活的地域不同，各自的生产条件、历史传统的不同，因而具有各自的物质文化，各自的诸如生活制度、家庭制度和社会制度等的制度文化和思维方式、审美情趣、宗教信仰及价值观念等等的心理文化。这些都体现在各民族日常生活和使用的语
5、言中。不同民族人民进行交往，既要打破语言障碍，又要穿越文化屏隔。因为对同一事物在不同的文化背景中往往具有不同的理解。,如李白的“赠汪伦”一诗所表现的朋友之情被西方文化背景的读者理解为具有同性恋倾向(侯维瑞，1993：278)。同一自然现象在不同的文化背景中也往往有不同的含义：积雪压断树枝英美人可能会认为因为树枝脆弱，而东方人则可能认为树枝刚强，宁折而不弯(蔡建平，1997：20)。同样，西方文化中也有许多事物不为我们所熟知。,这些例子都说明文化语境的客观存在，对事物理解的文化差异是客观存在，翻译文学作品须克服这种差异，以便不同文化的“对话”和“融合”，产生理解异文化的评价标准。如果套用姚斯的“
6、期待视野”的概念，这种特定文化评价标准我们可以称之为“文化期待视野”(horizon of cultural expectation)。,事实上已有人(阳志清、刘晓铃，1994：281)使用“文化期待图式”这一概念。在翻译中如果译者用本族文化图式套用异文化，或者用错误的图式理解异文化，就会产生错误的理解和翻译。有人作过分析，很多外诗汉译中词语错译的根源就是对外语文化缺乏了解(冯玉律，1997：5053)。,在对一些译诗的错误分析时笔者发现，一些词语错译的深层原因是译者对诗的总体理解有误，而总体理解的错误往往又可进一步归因于对该诗所涉及的文化语境的错误理解。当诗中一些词语与由错误文化语境知识建构
7、的诗的总体意义相抵牾时，有的译者便曲解这些词的意义，或干脆删去不译，以避免捉襟见肘的窘态。,2.3 诗歌翻译实例分析以下对两首英诗的汉译实例进行分析，揭示译者错误的外国文化图式对诗中个体词语的理解和翻译的影响。译者对原诗的简评正好可以作为了解其对全诗总体意义的把握和有关的宏观文化图式的参照。,文化图式或文化语境知识不仅可以通过影响译者对整首诗的理解进而影响其对单个词义的理解，而且还可以直接影响译者对诗中关键词的理解和翻译。请看一位译者对美国女诗人 Gwendolyn Brooks(1917)一首诗的翻译：,译例1 We Real Cool1The Pool Players.Seven at t
8、he Golden Shovel.We real cool.WeLeft school.WeLurk late.WeStrike straight.We引自Anthology of American Literature(third edition),Vol.II,New York:Macmillan,1985,1579页,Sing sin.WeThin gin.WeJazz June.WeDie soon.,我们真冷漠1弹子游戏者。七点，在哥顿雪佛尔。我们真冷漠。我们不读书。我们偷玩得很迟。我们击打弹子。我们同，165页,歌唱犯罪。我们变得憔悴。我们六月跳起爵士舞。我们很快一命呜呼。译者注评
9、：该诗描绘了现代人的生活，具有批判的意识1同，163页,以上诗中的关键词是cool，而对该词的理解与美国文化背景密切相关。该诗发表于1960年，60年代正是美国反主流文化大行其道的年代。青年人以标新立异的生活方式为荣，以此表示对传统、社会和国家政治的不满。如果译者有这样的文化背景知识就会对cool一词的意义认真推敲，而不会贸然译为“冷漠”了。,该词确有“冷漠的”等含义，但在反主流文化运动中的意义是“杰出的”、“绝好的”等(Chapman,1989:167)，这些意义是一般字典能查到的。这种用法始于20世纪50年代美国黑人音乐界(Beale,1991:104)。其时，昔日南方黑人旧爵士乐激昂的旋
10、律遽变为冷峻深沉的现代爵士乐，因而人们的赞誉词也从hot转向cool。随后cool逐渐失去过去“冷漠”的含义，转为赞扬标新立异思想和心态的流行词，很受当时年轻人的青睐，后来变成了英语常用词(刘锦明，1996：4749)。,cool作以上理解是符合该诗的总体意义的。这首诗以调侃的口吻表现了美国60年代青年的一种生活方式和心态。他们缀学，晚上迟迟不归，饮酒，沉迷爵士乐，大有过把瘾就死的气概。诗人在诗歌形式上也很标新立异，采用口语，用词打破常规。如We real cool中省去be动词are，把thin和jazz用作动词；把第二行以后的每行第一词we移至前一行的末尾，使之成为跨行诗。这样在原来的aa
11、bbccdd尾韵之外又加了we尾音贯穿全诗，加强了该字的意义。所有这些手法都渲染了诗的主题，给人耳目一新的感觉。,该诗译者由于对美国文化缺乏了解，因而错误理解了cool一词，得出该诗“具有批判意识”的结论，又错译thin gin(饮杜松子酒)为“变得憔悴”。由此可见非本族语的文化图式在诗歌翻译中的重要性。为节约篇幅，现仅把本诗第一行(即标题)、第六行及最后一行试译如下：“我们真棒”(或译“真酷”1。)“畅饮杜松子酒”，“很快死去”。1受港台娱乐界的影响，近几年来“酷”（cool）一词在国内十分流行。,异文化知识的不足不但会影响对诗的整体理解，影响对词语所指意义的理解，当然还会影响译者正确理解词
12、的内涵意义、进而影响选择恰当的译入语的措词。请看美国诗人华莱士.史蒂文斯(Wallace Stevens,18791955)一首诗的汉译。限于篇幅，只选二节中的第一节。22 该诗第二节主要是对死者及停灵场景的描写。,译例2 The Emperor of Icecream1 Call the roller of big cigars,The muscular one,and bid him whip In kitchen cups concupiscent curds.Let the wenches dawdle in such dress As they are used to wear,an
13、d let the boysBring flowers in last months newspapers.Let be be finale of seem.The only emperor is the emperor of icecream.同，1528页。,冰淇淋皇帝1招呼那个卷雪茄烟的家伙就是那个棒小子，叫他去调制冰淇淋，就用厨房的杯子。就让这些女孩穿戴她们平时的衣饰，叫这些男孩用旧报纸来包裹花束。人生的了结就是浮生的总结。冰淇淋陛下在这里就是最最高级。丁祖馨译。见英语知识1993年第4期，14-15页。,译者注评：该诗冷冷地揭露了穷人家的辛酸一生。一个妇人死了，留下一大堆孩子。死时家
14、徒四壁，没有什么东西可以招待客人，用厨房杯子调制的冰淇淋是最好的东西了。人们送来的鲜花只能用旧报纸来裹束。他们穷得连蒙尸体的白布都没有，只好用死者生时所绣的花床单来蒙盖,译者对该诗的理解概括起来就是一个“穷”字。但这与诗的标题和诗节的最后一行如何联系呢?这十分令人困惑。实际上译者用错误的文化图式解读该诗，因而其理解无法与诗中的描写相吻合，有时只好削足适履，删去无法纳入其理解框架的词。如第三行的concupiscent(性欲强烈的，好色的)，第四行的dawdle(闲荡，游荡)，当然就更读不出那些内涵丰富的常用词、因而无从在汉语里用恰当的词翻译了。如果换一个视角，问题就迎刃而解了。请看另一种解读：
15、,在冰激凌皇帝里，史蒂文斯即以美国城市贫民区守灵的情景为背景。一个妓女刚死不久，诗中的第一人物“我”希望吊唁的妓女们“仍然穿往昔的花衣服来”，“再让小伙子们用上月的旧报纸包一些鲜花来”，“叫那汉子来，关照他到厨房去摇一些催欲的冰激凌来。冰激凌皇帝是咱们唯一的皇帝!”作者两次重复了这句话，着重地表示他对感官享受(食欲、色欲)的赞颂(董衡巽等，1986：5960)。,请对比一下该诗第一节的另一种翻译：叫来那滚动粗雪茄的男人，那肌肉发达的一个，吩咐他去厨房搅制几杯色欲浓郁的凝乳。让姑娘们穿她们惯穿的衣裳去游荡，让那些小伙子用上个月的旧报纸带些花来。让“是”成为“似乎是”的最终结局，唯一的皇帝是冰激凌
16、皇帝.江枫译。转自外国名诗鉴赏辞典，河北人民出版社，1989，920页,比较一下两种译诗中一些关键词的翻译：原 诗 译 诗1 译 诗2 roller(卷雪茄烟的)家伙(滚动粗雪茄的)男人muscular 棒 肌肉发达concupiscent curds(漏一词)冰淇淋 色欲浓郁的凝乳wenches 女孩 姑娘们dawdle(漏一词)游荡boys 男孩 小伙子,不难看出，译诗2基于对文化内涵、进而对该诗整体意义的理解，较好地译出了左栏这些词的性暗示的内涵意义。而译诗1由于其译者对该诗意义错误的跨文化阐释，完全没有译出其内涵意义，致使译诗与原诗所要传达的涵义相去甚远。以上例子也说明一些译者在翻译时
17、不仔细研读原诗理解内涵便率而操觚，这是对读者不负责任的。,有时，本族文化语境影响过强，还可能使译者采用归化的翻译方法。如汤姆叔叔的小屋译者黄继忠由于成长的文化氛围和自身的文化素养，在翻译汤姆叔叔的小屋时多采用归化方法，表现了很强的中国文化语境特征。,1 Domesticated expressions and style1.1 Use of four-character expressions and Chinese idioms It seems that the translator is so fond of four-character Chinese phrases or expre
18、ssions that almost very page of the Chinese version of the novel is filled with them.Some of them are well used,conveying the original meanings precisely and recreating the imagery vividly.,But quite a few of these expressions are not appropriately used,and they not only give the translation the cha
19、racteristics of the Chinese language,but also tinge this American novel with the color of Chinese culture.For instance,“writing utensils”(Stowe 29;ch.4)becomes“wen fang si bao”(traditional Chinese four treasures of the study:writing brush,ink stick,ink slab and paper(文房四宝)(Huang 28);“hunted down lik
20、e a deer”(Stowe 90;ch.9)becomes“sang jia zhi quan”(as frightened as a stray cur,which also traces its origin to a Chinese classic 丧家之犬)(Huang 85),The translator also uses quite a few other typical Chinese idioms or fixed phrases and colloquial expressions besides four-character expressions.For insta
21、nce,“fool”(Stowe 117;ch.12)becomes“er bai wu”,(literally two hundred and fifty,very colloquial expression meaning the foolish person二百五)(Huang 110);“best hand”(Stowe 104;ch.11)becomes“di yi ba jiao yi”(literally the first chair,the most important person or the person who takes the greatest responsib
22、ility第一把交椅)(Huang 98);,1.2 Use of naturalized structure in stead of typical structure of the English language.Though generally it is difficult to retain the characteristics of the original language in the target language,especially between very different languages like English and Chinese,sometimes
23、it is not only desirable but also possible to keep some features of the original language in the translation.,The domesticated handling of the original structure will weaken the effect of expression.For instance,“and in the chair,gently swaying back and forward,her eyes bent on some fine sewing,sat
24、our old friend Eliza.(Stowe 131;ch.13).In Chinese it becomes“In the rocking-chair sat our old friend Eliza”这把摇椅上坐着我们的老朋友伊莉莎(Huang 124),2 Domesticated scene or moodThe beginning of Chapter 15“Of Toms New Master and Various Other Matters”is an introduction to Toms new master St Clairs experience of lo
25、ve affaires and later of his marriage:how the misunderstanding between St Claire and his first love led to his marriage with another woman he did not really love;how he later felt remorseful when the truth was revealed that his first love still fostered love for him and she was now very miserable wi
26、thout seeing him.,In rendering the account of St Clairs first loves feelings,the translator used quite a few archaic expressions from typical traditional Chinese literature about love-sick women who are discarded by their husbands or lovers(怨妇).For instance,伊人(that person)，徒唤奈何(cannot help(something
27、 from happening)，愁肠百结(feel gloomy)，日渐憔悴(pine away day by day),他独自一人回到卧房里拆阅信件；可是现在不看也罢，看了也是徒唤奈何，无济于事。果然是她写的，把她监护人一家人对她横加摧残，诱逼她嫁给他们的儿子的经过详述了一遍；还谈到她如何久久收不到他的来信在愁肠百结之下，她如何日渐憔悴；（Huang,143）.,The use of these typical expressions in traditional Chinese love-sick women literature creates a typical mood in wh
28、ich a discarded woman pities her misfortune and curses her fate;or a sentimental young woman enjoys her sour and sweet love.In such cases,the melancholy mood is more enjoyed for its own sake than pitied.,Besides,Huang uses such clichs as commonly used in some sentimental popular Chinese literature:闭
29、月羞花貌(her beauty is so great as to shade the moon and shame flowers),三、社会政治语境与文学翻译,社会政治语境对翻译的影响主要体现在意识形态对翻译的操控。3.1 Ideology,Culture and Intercultural Communication3.1.1Definition of the term ideology According to Abrams,ideology“is the beliefs,values,and ways of thinking and feeling through which hum
30、an beings perceive,and by recourse to which they explain,what they take to be reality.,An ideology is,in complex ways,the product of the position and interests of a particular class.In any historical era,the dominant ideology embodies,and serves to legitimize and perpetuate,the interests of the domi
31、nant economic and social class”.(Abrams,2004,p.148).Besides,according to some Marxists,ideology serves to disguise the real power relations in society and seeks(invisibly)to make social relations appear natural and,by gaining the consent of the subordinate classes,to bring about political control or
32、 hegemony.(Peck and Coyle,2002,p.157),From the above we can see that ideology involves the ideas and beliefs and values held by certain social group or class,these ideas are more often than not false.It also involves power or hegemony in promoting these ideas to be accepted as universally true or to
33、 be regarded as reflecting the reality.,We tend to use the term ideology as something parallel to culture or politics or religion,but is more political oriented and more influential than other coordinates because as we have mentioned,it often involves power or hegemony.,3.1 Influence of ideology upo
34、n the translators choice of the material to translateIdeology plays an important role in the translators choice of the material to translate.It is agreed by Chinese scholars that the first literary works in English or in any other foreign language translated into Chinese are Longfellows A Psalm of L
35、ife and an episode in Byrons Don Juan:The Isles of Greece,both of which are accidentally poetic works.,The reason for this was not accidental or coincidental and this can be attributed to the social and political climate in which the translations were done and to the mentality or ideology of the tra
36、nslators.The two poetic pieces were translated at the turn of 19th century when the Chinese people were suffering from feudal oppression from within and foreign oppression from without and were threatened by being reduced into enslavement by foreign countries.,The late Prof Wang Zuo-liang published
37、a collection of translated poems and essays in 1980,just a few years after the end of Great Cultural Revolution(1966-1976)and this book can be used for our analysis.According to Wang,the translation was done from the late 1950s(Wang,1980:i)and we assume it was continued to approximately the end of G
38、reat Cultural Revolution.This is a particular period in that it might be one of the most political or leftist periods in modern Chinese history and it was characterized by overemphasis on politics or claimed Marxism.During this period people were generally political oriented otherwise they might run
39、 into trouble.,Consciously or unconsciously they accepted the dominant ideology.Wang must also have been influenced by the ideology of the time and this is reflected in the material he selected to translate.The above mentioned book of translated poems and essays contains works of three poets:Robert
40、Burns(11 poems),Percy Bysshe Shelley(8 poems)and Hugh MacDiarmid(10 poems).,In the periphery texts of this book(his brief introduction to each of the poets or in his notes)the translator tells the reasons for choosing their poems.The reasons for choosing Burns poems are 1)the sympathy for the low an
41、d down-trodden and satire on the ruling class(Wang,1980,p.:i);2)appeal for freedom and social equality after the model of French Revolution;3)praise of the courage of the poor(eg A Mans a Man For A That);3)the poets patriotic sentiments about his country Scotland and their resentments toward the Eng
42、lish rule over Scotland and the amalgamation of Scotland into England;4)praise of the simple joy of life of the poor/their optimism about life and satire on the empty life of the gentry;5)satire on the hypocrisy and licentiousness of priests and of Church(Wang,1980,p.:25).,In his note for the poem“S
43、cots Wha Hae”Wang again praises the Scottish peoples patriotism in their fight for their national independence and their determination to fight for freedom(Wang,1980,p.33).”Holy Willies Prayer”is a satirical poem on the licentiousness and hypocrisy of priests.In the note,Wang points out that this po
44、em once gave the Church and priests great shock and proved to be a great blow to them.,Similarly his criterion for his choice of Shellys poems are also related to his ideology or to the influence of the orthodox ideology on him:1)his opposition to the Church,evils of society and rebellion against ty
45、rannies 2)his yearnings for revolution and his ideal for a new society and for freedom and social equality,for instance the poems“Ozymandias”,and“Ode to the West Wind”of which the last line is especially praised:“If winter comes,can spring be far behind”for the encouragement it had given the revolut
46、ionaries when they suffered setbacks in their fight against tyrannies;3)for his sympathy with the suffering people and appeal for social justice;4)praise of pure love(Wang,1980,pp146-150).Besides what have been mentioned,Shelleys poems include“On Fanny Godwin”,”England in 1819”,”To,”Chorus from Hell
47、as”,”A Lament”and“A Dirge”.,Wangs reasons for including another Scottish poet Hugh MacDiarmid(1892-1977)are more overtly ideological or political-related.First,the poet himself was politically oriented and he was even a Marxist and Communist.He wrote political lyrics and wrote in Scottish dialect wh
48、ich shows his affinity with the people.Besides,he wrote poems in praise of Lenin,the first leader of the former Communist Soviet Union and in praise of other leaders of the working class.,Thirdly his poems express his belief in Marxism and Communism.Fourthly,he made efforts and pursued a new style o
49、r techniques from the good heritages of human culture advocated by Lenin(Wang,1980,pp 208-210).The poems included are“The Bonnie Broukit Bairn”,“Moonlight Among the Pines”,“The Eemis Stane”,“Empty Vessel”,“Lourd on My Hert”,“The Skeleton of the Future”,“Of John Davidson”,“Reflections in an Ironworks
50、”,“Krassivy”,and“On the Fly-Leaf of Jean Cassons Massacres of Paris”.,Wangs criteria for his choice reflect the predominant political ideology prevailing in China for a long time since the Liberation:the Marxist ideology of class and class struggle which was the basic guiding principle of the Party
