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1、英语衔接手段,1.衔接（cohesion）和连贯(coherence)语篇无论是口头表达，还是书面表达，都必须衔接合理，符合逻辑，语义连贯。衔接和连贯都属于韩礼德功能语法中的语篇纯理功能，有很强的实用性和实践性。我们在谈到语篇中的衔接现象时常常会涉及“连贯”（coherence）。其实，衔接和连贯是两个不同的概念。简单地说，衔接是语篇现象，指的是发话者用来表示经验和人际方面语言连贯的语法手段；而连贯是心理现象，它存在于发话者的头脑中，无法在语篇层面上找到线索。有人认为，衔接是语篇的有形网络，而连贯是语篇整体意义的无形框架。连贯不但要依靠语篇表层结构中各个句子之间的衔接，而且要符合语义、语用和认
2、知原则。语篇正是通过衔接手段（cohesive devices）才实现了它的连贯性（cohence）。,1.衔接（一）逻辑衔接手段逻辑联系语可以表达许多语义关系，早在1976年，Halliday and Hasan就把这些关系分为四类：additive（增补）；adversative（转折）；cause（原因）；temporal（时间）当然这些语义关系还可以被细化成很多种。本文综合各家之长，拔常用的逻辑联系语按语义关系分类如下：,1表示空间：above,before me,here,on the left,across from,below,in the distance等。英博语写作锐中培养
3、管学生运理用语篇在衔接手线段的途径。2.表示时间：first,second,etc.,finally,eventually,in the meantime,at the same time,等。3表示原因：because,because of,as,since,due to,owing to,as result of,on account of等。4.表示条件：given,if,in that case,if not 等。,5 表示让步：although,though,admittedly,it is true but,even though,even if 等。6表示举例：for examp
4、le,for instance,in addition,in addition to,as well as,to illustrate等。7 表示比较：another,furthermore,moreover,equally important,besides,in fact,等。8表示对比：on the contrary,different from,on the one hand on the other hand,等。,9表示增补：and,and also,too,andtoo,in addition,in addition to,furthermore,besides,等。10.表示列
5、举：first,second,;firstly,secondly,;nest,then,finally,等。11.表示解释或等同：that is to say,namely,in other words,similarly,equally,I mean,等。12.表示替换：again,rather,worse,alternatively,instead of,instead,等。,13表示总结：to conclude,in conclusion,in short,in brief,on the whole,等。14.表示转折：well,now,by the way,incidentally,等
6、。15.表示结果：So,hence,consequently,therefore,as consequence,as a result 等。16.表示强调:chiefly,actually,most important,certainly,of course,as a matter of fact 等。,17.表示转题：by the way,as for,to change the subject,with reference to,concerning等值得注意的是：同一个衔接词可以用来表达不同的关系，比如：first,second,third,etc.既可以表时间关系，也可以表空间关系，同
7、时也可以表推理或举例，还可以表比较和对比，因此在逻辑词的选用上要考虑到语境。,(二)语法衔接手段衔接的手段有五种：照应(reference)省略(ellipsis)替代(substitution)连接(conjunction)词汇衔接(lexical cohesion),（1）照应：照应也称指称，指用代词等语法关系表示语义关系。照应关系又分为人称照应关系（personal reference）,指示照应关系(demonstrative reference)和比较照应关系(comparative reference)。另外还有外照应，内照应，直接照应，间接照应等等。人称照应关系的照应词一般为第三
8、人称代词。如his、everybody 等。指示照应关系的照应词包括this、that、these、those 之类的指示代词，以及定冠词the 和such a 一类的词,也包括there、now、then 等地点指示词和时间指示代词。比较照应关系的照应词有same、as、similar、different、other、otherwise 等。,例如：人称照应：Mary loves her mother.her指代Mary，形成了语义上的连贯。指示照应一般是借助于this,that等来指代前文出现的事物。例：I visited London last year.That was my firs
9、t visit.that即指London。比较照应是是通过事物之间的相似性比较获得。例：Jim visits his grandma every week,but I never knew he does that so often.often用来比较Mike最近去看望祖母的次数和他之前的次数，形成对比,（1）Mike loves Jean but cant get married with her.（人称照应）（2）Wang lost his mother?Im really sorry to hear of that.（指示照应）（3）Both teams claim another ga
10、me.（比较照应）（4）How do you like that girl?（外照应指）（5）Ben Johnson would still be the 100 metres world record holder if he had not been caught taking drugs in the 1988 Olympics.(he是第三人称代词)（6）Another epidemic that spread in similar conditions was the Great Flu Epidemic of 1918.(similar表示比较关系),2 替代替代（substitu
11、tion）指的是用替代形式（pro-form）去替代上下文所出现的词语。使用替代既是为了避免重复，也是为了连接上下文。替代主要有:名词性替代（nominal substitution）动词性替代（verbal substitution）分句性替代（clausal substitution）,1.名词性替代（nominal substitution）：用名词性替代词one(s)，that，the same,the kind,the sort等,不定代词all,both,some,any,enough,several,none,many,much,more,(the)most,(a)few,ano
12、ther,the other,others,either等，名词性物主代词mine,yours,his 等；来替代某一个名词。如：Look at this apple.I never saw one bigger,2.动词性替代（verbal substitution）:用动词替代词do的各种形式来代替前面提到的动词，可以避免行文繁琐。如：I think you may like this penIf you doyou can take it away as a gift 3.分句性替代（clausal substitution）:用分句替代词so,this或者not 来代替一个分句。如：T
13、he weatherman said that it was going to rain tomorrowIf so，we will stay at home.,(1)This dress is out of fashion,you need a new one.(one=dress 名词性替代)(2)Will you stop that silly complaining?I wont!(=I wont stop complaining.动词性替代)(3)Will the Movie Star show up on time?I hope so.(so=that the Movie Star
14、 will show up on time分句性替代)(4)The word“think”was also a difficult one for Helen.(名词性替代，one 替代word)(5)He eventually comes and does the car.（动词性替代,does替代comes）(6)Uncertain about how to fix them,she stopped to think carefully.As he did this,Miss Sullivan touched Helens head.(分句替代，this替代前面整个分句she stoppe
15、d to think carefully),3 省略指篇章中句子或小句中一些基本成分的缺省，被省略的部分要借助于上下文才能发现.省略可看作是一种特殊的替代零替代（substitution by zero）。一个句子中的省略成分通常都可以从语境中找到。这样，一个句子给另一个句子的理解提供依据，就是他们之间形成了连接关系。所以，在语篇分析中，省略在句子之间所起的纽带作用是不可忽略的。省略的分类与替代的分类是相同的，它也是分成名词型、动词型和小句型。省略现象通常出现在并列复合句、状语从句、主语从句、定语从句、感叹句或某些动词和介词后。省略也可分为三类：名词性省略（nominal ellipsis）、
16、动词性省略（verbal ellipsis）和分句性省略（clausal ellipsis）。,下面三个英语例句分别展示了这三种衔接手段：Do you have two or one brother?I have two.（省略了名词“brothers”)Have you handed in the paper?Yes,I have.（省略了动词词组“handed in the paper”）Where have you been recently?Fujian Province.（省略了主语“I”和谓语“have been to”),（1）The day everything went wr
17、ong was May 24.(省略了定语从句中的关系副词when)（2）What a clumsy end to an awful day!(省略了感叹句中的主谓成分it was)（3）“Is love the sweetness of flowers?”“No,”said the teacher.（No后省略it isnt.）（4）She point up and asked if it was love.When the teacher said it wasnt,she was confused(wasnt 后省略了表语love),（5）Uncertain about how to f
18、ix them,she stopped to think carefully.(原因从句中省略了与主句相同的主语she和谓语动词was)（6）However,past predictions have nearly been proved wrong.(proved和 wrong 之间省略了to be)在写作中，只要在上下文中能够被理解，我们就可以把一些部分省略。如：People have various aimsSome(people)want to earn much moneySome(people)want to be famous。很明显，第二和第三个“people”可以省略，此处省
19、略即避免了重复，也构成了语义上的连贯。,4 连接连接是通过连接成分体现语篇中的种种逻辑关系的手段。连接关系是通过连接词、某些副词或词组实现。连接手段的标记是各种连接词。连接词是语篇中的“谋篇机制”，它是语篇构建的重要因素。Halliday 和 Hasan(1976)将英语的连接分为增补(additive)，转折(adversative)，原因(causal)，时间(temporal),增补型：and、furthermore、whats more、in addition,besides,as wellAnne was a teacher and former student at school
20、for the blind in Boston.She had had eyesight problems early in life as well.除了上句所出现的as well这个词组外，等词也可以用来表示内容上的增加或补充 Under a magnifying glass the stamps look very beautiful,and they help to increase my knowledge of nature.,原因型：since,as，because,now that,due to,owing to,thanks to Now that Helen underst
21、ood the key to language,she was eager to learn more and use it as much as she could.As Helens knowledge and vocabulary expanded,she asked more and more questions.Americans have a greater life span than their ancestors of a century ago because medical science has found cures for most of the serious i
22、llnesses that were common in the past.He didnt go to school today,because he was sick.,转折型：although,though，nevertheless,even though，however，on the other hand,otherwise The meaning of love was still not apparent to Helen but she kept on trying to understand.General Grant was an outstanding commander,
23、but was not a wise president.,时间型：when,while,as,before,afterShe had a breakthrough while working on a simple task.She was making necklaces with the help of Miss Sullivan when she noticed that she had made some mistakes.At first he combined it with his school work;later he moved to Oxford and dedicat
24、ed himself to building the best sort of monument.,5 词汇衔接；指通过词汇选择在篇章中建立一个贯穿篇章的链条，从而建立篇章的连续。词汇衔接对于实现语篇连贯起着基础而关键的作用.它的关系可以分为两大类：复述（reiteration)和搭配(collocation)。复述关系指的是某一词以原词重复（repetition）、同义词(synonym)或近义词(near synonym)、上下义关系(hyponymy)或广义词(general word)等形式重复出现在语篇中，语篇的句子通过这种复现关系达到了相互衔接。搭配关系也称共现关系，语篇中词汇共同
25、出现的倾向性，它包括篇章中所有语义相关联的词项，如catch和cold，ill和doctor，big和small，corn和planter,Bright,very bright,were the stars over the wild,dark Yenan hills.（原词复现）.But community colleges also like other institutions called trade schools.Both schools offer technical training.（同义词/近义词复现）After an hour or so-the sun was rapi
26、dly sinking,the white clouds had turned red,the hills were violet,the woods purple,the valleys black-a trumpet sounded.（上下义词复现）,He fell asleep.What woke him was a loud crash.（反义词复现）The poor old woman wanted to thank the kind girl called Annie who helped her find her grandson.(1)Annie is a kind girl.
27、(原词复现)(2)Annie is a warmhearted girl.(近义词)(3)Annie is a good girl.(上下义词复现),（三）词汇衔接手段英语词汇衔接关系包括复现关系和同现关系。1 词汇复现关系词汇复现关系分为四种:原词复现;同义词、近义词复现;上下义词复现;概括词复现。由某个词以原词、同义词、近义词、上义词、下义词、概括词或其它形式重复出现在语篇中，把语篇的各个部分衔接起来，使语篇达到连贯。2词汇同现关系/搭配同现关系，也叫搭配，指的是词汇共同出现的倾向性。一个语篇往往围绕一个主题展开，那么有关这个主题的词汇便会反复出现，而与它无关的一些特定词汇就不大可能出现。同现的词汇在语义上是有联系的。词汇的同现关系主要包括反义关系和互补关系,2.连贯连贯(coherence)是语篇具有的一种特征，指一段话语或某个语篇不同部分在意义上的联系。大部分语篇分析者认为，连贯是语篇中句子或语段在语义和功能上的连接关系。它通常有两层含义：第一层含义是指文章在内容上是连贯、统一的，文章中所有的句子都是为全文的中心服务的；第二层含义指的是表达上的连贯。文章的段落之间、段落中各句子之间要有一定的衔接。语篇的连贯性可以通过语言衔接手段来实现，所以，有些语言学家也认为衔接是连贯的基础。,Thank you!,
