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1、Lecture 9,The use of English（I）,Review,What do we mean by“prototype”?Use an example to illustrate.How do you understand the following book title?Women,Fire and Dangerous Things(George Lakoff 1987),Appreciate,老音乐好听，旧钞票会升值，老朋友最能信任，谁说旧的没有新的好？-胖仔物语How is this ballad semantically interesting?,Major conte
2、nts,9.1 Pragmatic approach to language9.2 Deictic expressions9.3 Speech act theory9.4 Presupposition,9.1 Pragmatic approach to language,Pragmatics is the study of meaning in use meaning in context speaker meaning contextual meaningPragmatics studies communication(utterance production and comprehensi
3、on)from a functional(i.e.social,cultural,cognitive)perspective.,Semantics vs pragmatics,Semanticism:semantics includes pragmaticsPragmaticism:pragmatics includes semanticsComplementarism:semantics studies meaning in the abstract;pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.,Mean and Say,It wasnt wh
4、at he said,but what he meant.Then you should say what you mean,the March Hare went on.I do,Alice hastily replied;at least at least I mean what I say thats the same thing,you know.Not the same thing a bit,said the Hatter.“You might just as well say that I see what I eat is the same thing as I eat wha
5、t I see!”“You might just as well say,”added the March Hare,“that I like what I get is the same thing as I get what I like!”“You might just as well say,”added the Dormouse“that I breathe when I sleep is the same thing as I sleep when I breathe!”(Lewis Carroll:Alices Adventures in Wonderland),Literal
6、meaning,utterance meaning,speaker meaning,I met him yesterday.Youre really friendly.A:Do you like Harry and John?B:I like Harry.,9.2 Deictic expressions（指示语）,Deixis:(from Greek)anchoring,pointing(toward the context)phenomenon.The linguistic means used in this function are known as deictics,indexical
7、s(or indexical/deictic expressions).Examples:pronouns,demonstratives,time and place adverbs,and some grammatical categories such as tense.,Characteristics in use,The egocentricity of deixis Deictic expressions are anchored to specific points in the communicative event.The unmarked points,called the
8、deictic center,are typically assumed to be as follows(S.Levinson:Pragmatics):I love this game!,-the central person is the speaker-the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance-the central place is the speakers location at utterance time-the discourse center is the point wh
9、ich the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance-the social center is the speakers social status and rank,to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative,Discuss,PP 147-148 No.2,3,Deictic vs.Non-deictic,Deictic:gestural/symbolicYou,you,but not you,are dismissed.(
10、gestural)What did you say?(Symbolic)Non-deictic:anaphoric/non-anaphoricJack is a student.He comes from Britain.You can never tell what sex they are nowadays.There you go again./There we go.I did this and that.,Classification of deixis,Person deixisPlace deixisTime deixissocial deixisdiscourse deixis
11、,9.3 Speech act theory,Saying is acting.(John Austin,How to Things with Words,1962)Teacher:Class begins.Boss:You are fired!,“Speech acts”refer to actions performed via utterances.Speech acts are“the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”.“The unit of linguistic communication is not,as h
12、as generally been supposed,the symbol,word or sentence,but rather the production of the symbol or word or sentence in the performance of the speech act”Searle,a.There is a book on the desk.b.I promise Ill be there ten sharp tomorrow.hereby-test:first person singular subject,simple present tense,indi
13、cative mood,active voice,performative verbs(with exceptions,though),Constatives(表述句）and performatives（施为句）,Collapse of Performative Hypothesis,a.Not all performative utterances require a performative verb;b.An utterance with a performative verb may not be the type of act suggested by the verb;e.g.A
14、kidnapper:I advise you to give me all in your pocket.,Do the following count as promises?If not,why?,a.I promise Ill fail you in the exam.b.I promise that next Friday will be his birthday.c.I promise that I saw him yesterday.d.I promise that youll help me out of trouble.e.He promises that hell help
15、me.f.I promised that I would help him.,felicity conditions（适切条件）,a.Essential condition（基本条件）b.Preparatory condition(预备条件）c.Propositional content condition（命题内容条件）d.Sincerity condition（真诚条件）,Felicity conditions for a promise:,1)The speaker can do what is promised;(基本）2）The promised act has not taken
16、place yet;(预备）3）The utterance is about a future act;The promised act is to the benefit of the hearer;The promised act will be fulfilled by the speaker;（命题内容）4)The speaker means what he says.（真诚）etc.,Practice,PP.149-150 No.5,Austins classification,-locutionary act:what is said-illocutionary act:what
17、is intended to do-perlocutionary act:what is to be effectedLeech:locutionary act performing an act of saying sthIllocutionary act performing an act in saying sthPerlocutionary act performing an act by saying sth,Practice:Analyze As remark in the following in terms of the three acts.A:The phone is ri
18、nging.B:(Stands up and picks up the receiver)Hello.,Searles classification of illocutionary acts,Representatives/assertives（阐述类）:describe,inform,deny,state,claim,assert,remind,etc.Directives（指令类）:request,ask,urge,tell,demand,order,advise,command,beseech,etc.Commissives（承诺类）:commit,promise,threaten,p
19、ledge,consent,refuse,offer,guarantee,etc.,Expressives（表达类）:apologize,boast,thank,deplore,welcome,congratulate,greet,etc.Declarations（宣告类）:declare,resign,appoint,nominate,bless,christen,name,etc.,Indirect speech acts,A direct performative act:I order you to leave the room.P.150 No.6,How to perform sp
20、eech acts?,Different cultures,different realizationse.g.Compliment-Compliment responsee.g.A:Oh,what a beautiful handwriting!B:No,no,not at all,you are joking.,Presentation session,Complimenting and responding to compliments in English,9.4 Presupposition,Presupposition and entailmentPresupposition tr
21、iggers:linguistics device that make inference possible.PP 151-152 No.8,9,Assignments,P.155 No.3P.156 No.6,7,Lecture 10,The use of English(II),Review,What are the three aspects of a speech act,according to John Searle?Use an example to illustrate.,Major contents,10.1 Cooperation in using English10.2
22、Politeness in using English10.3 Face considerations in using English10.4 Developing pragmatic competence,10.1 Cooperation in using English,Cooperative PrincipleMake your conversational contribution such as is required,at the stage at which it occurs,by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk e
23、xchange in which you are engaged.H.P.Grice,Logic and Conversation,1975,Maxims of the principle,Quality:Be truthful.a.Do not say what you believe to be false.b.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Quantity:Be informative.a.Make your contribution as informative as required(for the curr
24、ent purposes of the exchange)b.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.,Relation:Be relevant.Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand.Manner:Be perspicuous.a.Avoid obscurity of expression.b.Avoid ambiguity.c.Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity)
25、d.Be orderly.,Plausibility of the maxims,P.172 No.9,Flouting of the maxims,He is a machine.A:Where were you last night?B:I went out.A:Do you like the sisters?B:I like the younger sister.,A:What do you think of my new hairstyle?B:Your dress is nice.A:Lets get the kids something.B:Okay,but I veto I-C-
26、E-C-R-E-A-M.,Implicature,It is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance.When any of the maxims is blatantly violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated,a particular conversational implicature arises.,Some properties of conversational implicature,a.It can be cancelle
27、d,either by an explicit declaration that the speaker is opting out or,implicitly,by the co-text and context.(cancellability可取消性)A:Do you want some coffee?B:Coffee would keep me awake.(But any way,Id like some.,b.It can be inferred(calculability可推导性)P.170 No.3,How to calculate an implicature?,a.The c
28、onventional meaning of the words used,and the references of referring expressions;b.the cooperative principle and its maxims;c.the co-text and context;d.background knowledge;e.the supposition that all participants suppose that all relevant items falling under(1)-(4)are available to them all.,A profe
29、ssor writes a recommendation letter as follows:“X has regularly and punctually attended all my classes.All his assignments were handed in on time and very neatly presented.I greatly enjoyed having X in my class.”ASK:What is his implied meaning?,1 Since I have good reason to believe that she has info
30、rmation about Xs writing skills,the speaker has deliberately failed to observe(flouted)the maxim“Be informative”2 But I have no reason to believe that she has really opted out of the cooperative principle.So,she is only being apparently uninformative.3 If I draw the inference that X hasnt got very g
31、ood writing skills,then the speaker is being cooperative.She knows that I am capable of working this out.4 Therefore,she has implied(or“implicated”to use Grices term)that the students writing skills are not very good.,c.It may be indeterminate:in many cases,the list of possible implicatures of an ut
32、terance is open.(indeterminacy不确定性)P.170 No.4d.Non-detachability given the same proposition A:Are you coming to the concert tomorrow?B1:There will be an exam soon.B2:Wont there be an exam soon?B3:There will be an exam,wont there?,10.2 Politeness in using English,Leechs Politeness Principle Minimize(
33、other things being equal)the expression of impolite beliefs andMaximize(other things being equal)the expression of polite beliefs.,The 6 maxims of Leechs PP,Tact MaximMinimize cost to otherMaximize benefit to otherGenerosity MaximMinimize benefit to selfMaximize cost to self,Please wait a second.Giv
34、e me a hand.Could you sharpen these pencils,please.(less polite)Could these pencils be sharpened,please.(more polite)Could I have some more soup?(less polite)Is there some more soup?(more polite),I can offer you my car if you need it.You can offer me your car because I need it.Do have a bit more.Jus
35、t have a taste of the fish.,Approbation MaximMinimize dispraise of otherMaximize praise of otherMaxim of modestyMinimize praise of selfMaximize dispraise of self,What a marvelous meal you cooked!What an awful meal you cooked!A:This is one of the best articles Ive ever read.B:Yes,its brilliant,isnt i
36、t?,Agreement MaximMinimize disagreement between self and otherMaximize agreement between self and otherSympathy MaximMinimize antipathy between self and otherMaximize sympathy between self and other,Im terribly sorry to hear about your cat.Im delighted to hear about your cat.,Politeness scale:Direct
37、ness,direct Could you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect,Politeness scale:Cost-benefit,benefit Have another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me
38、the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost,10.3 Face considerations in using English,Face,the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself,consisting in two related aspects:According to Brown and Levinson(1978/1987):negative face:the basic claim to territories,personal preserves,rights
39、 to non-distraction-i.e.to the freedom of action and freedom from imposition,positive face:the positive consistent self-image or personality(crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of)claimed by interactants.,Presentation session,Strategies for doing FTAs in E
40、nglish,Assignments,PP.172-173 No.10PP.176-177 No.2,3PP.178-180 No.11,Lecture 11,The Varieties of English(I),Review,What are some properties of conversational implicature?What are some maxims of politeness?Use an example for each maxim.,Major contents,11.1 Interrelation between language and society 1
41、1.2 Regional dialects of English 11.3 Social dialects of English 11.4 Register theory,11.1 Interrelation between language and society,Chomsky(cognitive approach,ideal speaker)vs.Saussure(social semiotic approach)Any use of language is socially marked/stamped.Style is the man.The story of the flowerg
42、irl in PygmalionAs society changes,language will change.Language reflects society,as shown by the lexicon of snow,camel.,The social value of a dialect or variety reveals the social status of the speaker.A speaker with a large repertoire is likely to be more successful in his future career.For exampl
43、e,the ability to speak different dialects/mandarin Chinese is often advantageous in job hunting.The speech of a speaker acting as a father/son/husband/teacher/friend is varied.,Approaches to the study of the interrelation,Macro-sociolinguistics:a birds-eye view:how language functions in society and
44、how language reflects the social differentiations.sociology of language Micro-sociolinguistics:a worms-eye view:how language functions in the communication between members of the society.sociolinguistics,11.2 Regional dialect,Language and dialectLanguage:writing system;may include several dialects;o
45、ften politically definedDialect:traditionally only variation with space,but now with the space,the temporal factor and social factors usu.spoken;often part of a language;not distinct enough from other dialects of the same language to be treated as an independent language;often marked by geographical
46、 or social barriers;restricted purposesChinese vs.Cantonese,dialect A regionally or socially distinctive VARIETY of a language,identified by a particular set of WORDS and GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES.Spoken dialects are usually also associated with a distinctive pronunciation,or ACCENT.Any LANGUAGE with a
47、 reasonably large number of speakers will develop dialects,especially if there are geographical barriers separating groups of people from each other,or if there are divisions of social class.,It is usually said that people speak different languages when they do not understand each other.But many of
48、the so-called dialects of Chinese(Mandarin,Cantonese,Pekingese)are mutually unintelligible in their spoken form.(They do,however,share the same written language,which is the main reason why one talks of them as dialects of Chinese.)And the opposite situation occurs:Swedes,Norwegians and Danes are ge
49、nerally able to understand each other,but their separate histories,cultures,literatures and political structures warrant their being referred to as different languages.(David Crystal),Regional dialect often coincides with geographical barriers,like mountains,rivers,etc.accent dialectology Transition
50、 from one dialect to another is gradual rather than abrupt.Two neighboring dialects are often intelligible.P.192 No.1,Temporal dialect,temporal distance Old English;Middle English;Modern English diachronic/historical linguistics vs.synchronic linguisticsPP.192-193 No.2,11.3 Social dialect,Social dia
