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1、Chapter 3Ecological habit of landscape treesHabit of landscape trees includes biological and ecological characteristics Biological characteristics means trees themselves inherent law of growth and development.Phylogeny系统发育of species means all the process of this species from speciation to disappear
2、on earth.Ontogeny个体发育describes the origin and the development of a tree from the germination of seed,growth,flowering,fruit growth to its mature form.Growth and development of a year 年生长期 describes the rule of dormancy，germination,flowering,fruit growth and defoliation of a tree during a year.,Defin
3、ition-Ecological habit is study of the interaction between landscape trees and their environment,environment composed of abiotic and biotic factorsAbiotic component-soil,altitude,climate(temerpature,humidity,wind,etc.),latitude,other.Biotic component-predators,prey,parasites,competitors,other,Temper
4、ature Temperature factor play a very important role in the growth and development and geographic distribution of landscape trees.Southern tree-North-damage or died from the coldHomeworkNorthern tree-South-not healthy or not flowering or burned or died from the high temperature of long time.Different
5、 species have different heredity,so the scope of their vital activities,the limits of maximum and minimum temperatures which the plants are able to endure and the adaptability of growth and development periods with the temperature changing are different.,Gardeners must understand the relationships b
6、etween environmental factors and plants,then they can correctly selecting and applying plants for gardening.Temperature,The tree native to the tropical dry areas-can endure higher temperature,and the temperature of life activity is not higher than 50-60；The tree native to temperate zone-will reduce
7、their life activity at around 35 and will be damaged at around 50.Minimum temperature of life activity is around 1，some tree will be damage from cold above 0.However some small trees can flower in a world of snow and ice.,Abrupt changes in the temperature will be harmful for tree both beyond or in t
8、he endurant range.For example,in the high latitude,many thin-skinned types and wood-ray larger trees,such as 乌桕、核桃、槭树、板栗、悬铃木、榆树、七叶树、橡、栎类,are easily injured on southern bark in winter because of abrupt changes in the temperature between day and light.So some protection measures(包扎、缚草或涂白树干)were taken
9、for less hardy trees in winter,or adjust temperature in early spring and late fall by watering or giving shade by screen in summer.,Temperature-geographic distribution of landscape treesThe tropical zones where are more than 16 of annual average minimum temperature grow tropical rainforests and sava
10、nnah vegetation;The temperate zones where are 0-16 of annual average minimum temperature grow summer green broad-leaved species;The subfrigid zones where are below 0 of annual average minimum temperature and 10-20 in summer grow mainly coniferous forests distribution zones.The frigid zones where are
11、 below 10 of average temperature in July only grow moss and lichen,not trees,我们在引种树木时，要注意气候的相似性，否则不易成功。各植物的遗传性不同，对温度的适应力有很大差异。有些种对温度变化幅度的适应能力特别强，因而能在广阔的地域生长、分布，对这类植物称为“广温植物”或“广布种”；对一些适应能力小，只能生活在很狭小温度变化范围的种类称“狭温树种”。园林绿化中，常突破植物的自然分布范围而引种许多当地没有的奇花异木。当然在具体实践中不应只考虑温度因子本身而且需全面考虑所有因子的综合影响，才能获得成功。,Water fac
12、tor 一、Woody plants are grouped into Xerophyte(drought tolerant)tree,mesophyte tree,hygrophyte(aquatic)tree according to the water requirement of plant growth.1.Xerophyte trees 旱生树种：A plant that is adapted to an arid environment.Many xerophytes have specialized tissues(usually nonphotosynthetic paren
13、chyma cells)for storing water,as in the stems of cacti仙人掌 and the leaves of succulents肉质植物.Others have thin,narrow leaves,or even spines刺,for minimizing water loss.Xerophyte leaves often have abundant stomata to maximize gas exchange during periods in which water is available,and the stomata are rec
14、essed in depressions,which are covered with fine hairs to help trap moisture in the air.本类具有极强的抗旱能力，能长期生长在干旱地带而正常生长发育的植物类型。它们在长期的系统生长发育过程中形成适应干旱的特性，各树种适应干旱方式不完全相同。可分以下几类：,少浆树种或硬叶树种：体内的含水量很少，而且在丧失一半含水量时仍不会死亡。它们的形态和生理特点是：叶硬、革质有光泽，角质层厚、表皮细胞数层，叶子失水不易凋萎，深根性。如夹竹桃、冬青等。叶退化、叶面积小。如：柽柳、沙拐枣等。冷生树种或干矮树种：本类树种具有旱生少
15、浆植物的特征，但又有自己的特点。一般体形矮小，常呈团丛或匍匐状。A.干冷生树种：环境干燥而寒冷，常见高山地带。B.湿冷生树种：土壤湿润甚至多湿而寒冷，但由于气候寒冷而造成生理上干旱，常见寒带、亚寒带地区,2.Mesophyte tree中生树种：A plant that grows in an environment having a moderate supply of water.Mesophytes tend to have root systems and vascular tissues that are well-developed,and many species can gro
16、w to great heights as a result.Most trees growing in temperate climates are mesophytes.但其中也有略耐水湿和略耐干旱的种类。A.有很强的耐旱性，干湿适中情况生长好。如：油松、侧柏、酸枣、牡荆、构树等。B.有很强的耐湿性，干湿适中情况生长好。如：桑树、旱柳、紫穗槐、白蜡、丝绵木、柘树等。,3.Hygrophyte tree 湿生树种：a hygrophyte tree that need grows in a moist habitat,if we plant a hygrophyte tree in shor
17、t of water or moderate supply of water,it will be in bad growth or died.需在潮湿环境中生长，在干燥或中生环境下，常死亡或生长不良。如：水松、落羽杉、红树等。,二、Water supply greatly affects the growth and development of landscape trees.水分对树木生长发育也有极大影响 1.在灌溉与不灌溉的条件下，树木生长量、开花、结果差别很大。2.干旱季节部分叶子脱落，等到雨季可发生二次生长，甚至有些树种有再次开花现象。3.通过水分控制，调节树木生长发育。如：梅花进
18、行“扣水”限制其营养生长，有利于其花芽分化等。,三、Different tree species have different drought tolerance and water tolerance.不同树种的耐旱力和耐水力不一样，一般规律如下(SOME GENERALIZATIONS)：1.Broadleaf阔叶树耐水力强的耐旱力也强。如：柳类、桑、柘树、紫穗槐、白蜡、夹竹桃、柽柳、雪柳等。2.Deep-root trees深根性树种多数耐旱；浅根性树种多不耐旱。3.Indigenous trees乡土树种多表现较耐旱。4.Alien tree外来树种与原产地环境条件有关。5.Conif
19、er在针叶树中，分布广，大科、大属 的树木耐旱。6.栽培分布广的树种，耐旱，也耐水湿。,3 light factor Light is a necessary condition for plant growth and development.The sunlight accepted by plants in nature divided into two kinds:direct light and diffuse light.Diffuse light is good for plant photosynthesis.Direct light comprise violet light
20、 which inhibits plant growth,and protect plant from vain growth.,一、Effect of Light intensity on plant growth and development Woody plants are grouped into according to the light intensity of plant requirement for growth an d development.They are as follow:1.Intolerant tree species 阳性树种：Intolerant tr
21、ee species require full sunlight to grow efficiently,and they are shade intolerant.如：马尾松、樟子松、落叶松属、水杉、桦木属、桉树属、杨属、柳属、相思属、刺槐、楝树、金钱松、落羽松、银杏、板栗、漆树、泡桐属、刺楸、臭椿、悬铃木、核桃、乌桕、黄连木2.Tolerant tree species 阴性树种：Tolerant tree species can grow well in shade and not do well in full sunlight.严格的说木本植物中很少有典型的阴性植物而多为耐荫植物。,
22、3.moderate shade tolerant species中性树种（耐荫树种）：Grow very well in full sunlight,and have some extent shade tolerance.These species have very different shade tolerance because of different species.过去习惯于将耐荫力强的树木称为阴性树，但从形态解剖和习性上将有不具典型性，故归于中性植物为宜，在中性植物中包括有偏阳性的与偏阴性的种类。.,如榆树属、朴属、榉属、樱花、枫杨等为中性偏阳 槐、圆柏、珍珠梅、七叶树、元宝
23、枫、五角枫等为中性稍耐荫；冷杉属、云杉属、八角金盘、八仙花、桃叶珊瑚、常春藤、红豆杉、海桐、棣棠、荚蒾、罗汉松等均为中性而耐荫力较强的种类，因为这类树在温、湿、适宜条件下仍以光线充足处比在林下阴暗处为健壮。这类植物在城市绿化过程中非常有用。Dont make the mistake of planting your tree where it is mismatched with its need for light.,二、Identification standards of tree shade tolerance 树种耐荫性的鉴别标准（从树木外部形态推断其耐荫性）1.Physiologi
24、cal indicators生理指标法：Plant photosynthesis in a certain light intensity is closely related to light intensity.当光强减弱到一定的程度时，树木由光合作用所合成的物质质量恰好与呼吸作用所消耗的量相等，此时的光照强度称为light compensation point光补偿点。Balanced light level for plants:the level of light intensity at which a plants carbon dioxide output from respi
25、ration just balances its carbon dioxide requirement for photosynthesis,随着光照强度的增加光和作用的强度也提高因而产生的有机物质的积累，但是当光强增加到一定程度后光合作用就达到最大值而不再增加，此时的光着强度称为光饱和点。,As light intensity is increased,eventually an intensity is reached above which light no longer is the factor limiting the overall rate of photosynthesis.
26、At the light saturation point,increasing the light no longer causes an increase in photosynthesis 耐荫性强的树种其光补偿点较低，有的仅为00300lux，而不耐荫的阳性树则为1000lux。耐荫性强的树种其光饱和点较低，有的为5000-10000lux而一些阳性树光饱和点可达 50000lux。,2.Morphological indicators形态指标法：umbrella-like crown树冠呈伞形者多为阳性树种，树冠呈圆锥形而枝条紧密者 The lower branch leaf of
27、crown is easily withered 树干下部侧枝早枯落的多为阳性树，it is flourishing下枝不易枯落而且繁茂的多为耐荫树。The leaf is sparse in the crown,and thinner,larger surface area树冠的叶幕区稀疏透光，叶片色淡而质薄，如果是常绿树，其叶片寿命较短的为阳性树。The leaf is dense in the crown,and thicker,smaller surface area叶幕区浓密，叶色浓而且质地厚的，如果是常绿树，则叶可在树上存活多年的为耐荫树。,Evergreen needle-lea
28、ved tree常绿性针叶树的叶呈针状的多为阳性树，Evergreen flat,scale-like needles tree叶呈扁平或呈鳞片状而表、背区别明显的为耐荫树。Broad-leave evergreen tree阔叶树中的常绿树多为耐荫树，而Deciduous tree落叶树种多为阳性树或中性树。,Shade leaves thinner cuticle表皮,fewer cuticular hairs,larger surface area,thinner,fewer layers of palisade 木珊cells(with chloroplasts)and less lo
29、bed叶状 than sun leaves.Sun leaves thicker,more deeply lobed,smaller surface area to weight ratio,more and smaller stomata,more hairs,thicker cuticle,less horizontal leaf blades,less intercellular space within the leaf.,三、Factors influencing shade tolerance影响耐荫性的因素1.Species 树种的遗传性2.CO2的供给：CO2多，树木表现耐荫。
30、3.Age 年龄：一般趋势是树木在幼龄时，特别是幼苗阶段比较耐荫，随着年龄的增加，耐荫性逐渐减弱，特别是在壮龄以后，耐荫性逐渐降低，需要更强的光照。4.Climate 气候：在气候适宜的情况下，例如在湿润、温暖的条件下，耐荫能力表现较强，而在干旱瘠和寒冷条件下，则趋向喜光。所以同一树种在不同气候条件，耐荫有差异。在低纬度地区和湿润地区，往往比较耐荫，而在高纬度地区或干旱地区，往往趋向阳性。5.Soil 土壤：同一树种在土壤水分充足与肥沃时，树木耐荫性强，而在干旱瘠薄土壤上耐荫性差。树木搭配时，注意树木对光的要求。,4 Air factor 空气因子 离地面12公里的范围叫对流层，空气下边热、上
31、边冷，形成对流。风、雨、霜、雪、雷电、冰雹、大气污染等都发生在这一层。对流层的成分很复杂，其中主要气体的含量为：N2 占78%；O2 占21%；CO2占0。03%；氩占1%。同时还有一些不固定的成分如：SO2、NH4、氯化物、粉尘等微量成分。但工矿区大气中含有多种污染物质，主要有硫化物、氮氧化物、粉尘及带有各种金属元素的气体。空气运动就是风，风对树木作用有利也有害。大气污染影响树木的生长和发育。,The ability of a species to tolerate air pollution is becoming more important.Chemicals in the air v
32、ary with localities,and in some cases the accumulative effects of pollution are just beginning to surface,一、CO2、O2 influence on tree CO2 is indispensable for trees photosynthesis,90%of tree come from air.So 0.03%CO2 in the air is not enough for trees photosynthesis.If CO2 concentration will be incre
33、ase by 0.1%,tree will greatly grow.It has been proved by using dry ice in foreign country.二、N2 influence on tree Usually tree cannot absorb N2 directly from air,just absorb nitrogen from soil.Leguminous plants can be used nodule to fix nitrogen.,三、Wind on the ecological role of trees 风对树木的生态作用 1.风对树
34、木有利方面：对风媒花树木，如银杏雄株的花粉可借风传十里之外；风对树木的果实、种子传播有利，尤其是翅果类和带毛的种子。2.风对树木不利方面：风：可加速树木蒸腾作用，特别是春季的旱风，引起树木抽条。焚风：气流沿山坡下降而形成的热风。一般在沟谷，多焚风地区，易发生森林火灾。强风：使树木生长量减少一半。定向风，使树木发生畸形。台风：对树木摧残致死，常连根拔起。海潮风：风携带许多盐分，影响树木生长，使树木叶及嫩梢枯萎甚至全株死亡。风对距污染远的树木有影响，使树木受害。,四、大气污染对树木的生态作用 大气污染有粉尘类，有毒气体（SO2、HF、CI2、CO、NO2、Hg、Pb等）。1.SO2：以煤为原料的厂
35、矿、硫酸厂、化肥厂产生的含硫气体进入细胞内可以使内容物酸化，破坏新陈代谢作用，引起原生质凝固、叶绿素破坏。叶子呈现褐色斑点。2.HF、Pb：水泥厂、钢厂排放 HF、Pb。HF、Pb 对树木杀伤厉害，叶尖、叶缘出现水渍斑，干枯棕色。3.CI2 化工厂、制药厂、木材加工厂排放。植物受害后白化。4.粉尘：石灰、煤厂粉尘多。粉尘落在叶子上，不满全叶，堵塞气孔，妨碍蒸腾作用、光合作用、呼吸作用，严重影响树木生长发育。,5 Soil factor 土壤因子 土壤是树木生长的基础，不同的土壤在一定程度上会影响到树木的分布及其生长发育。Soil factors are probably the most ov
36、erlooked when selecting a tree.Soil depth,structure,and pH,in addition to soil moisture,can make the difference between success or failure.For example,deep-rooted species will need adequate soil depth for their structural roots while shallow-rooted species may tolerate soils that are thinly covered
37、with bedrock or a hard layer of clay.Species that need light,sandy soil should not be planted in rocky or clay-type soils.,一、Trees are grouped into acid tree,alkali tree依土壤酸碱度而分的植物类型1.Acid tree酸性土树种：PH7.2）上生长最佳者属于碱性土树种。如柽柳、紫穗槐、杠柳、沙棘、沙枣等。,二、Calcareous tree 钙质土树种（喜钙树种）：喜欢土壤中含有CaCO3的植物，如南天竹、柏木、青檀、臭椿、柘树
38、等。三、Plants are grouped into 4 types according to the soil which contains the saline content.依土壤中的含盐量而分的植物类型1.Saline plant 喜盐植物 旱生 湿生2.Saline-resistant tree 抗盐植物3.Salt-tolerant tree 耐盐植物4.Saline-alkali tree 碱土植物 从园林绿化建设来讲，在不同程度的盐碱土地区，较习用的耐盐碱树种有：柽柳、白榆、桑杞柳、旱柳、枸杞、楝树、臭椿、刺槐、紫穗槐、白蜡、绒毛白蜡、桂香柳、侧柏等。,四、依对土壤肥力的要
39、求而分的植物类型 绝大多数植物均喜生于深厚而适当湿润的土壤，但从绿化类考虑需选择出耐瘠薄土地的树种，特称为瘠土树种，如马尾松、油松、构树、木麻黄、牡荆、酸枣、小檗、锦鸡儿等。肥土树种：比较严格地栽在肥沃土壤中才可生长好，如核桃、梧桐、栎、樟树等。五、沙生植物 能适应沙漠、半沙漠地带的植物，具有耐干旱、耐瘠薄、耐沙埋、抗日晒、抗寒、耐热、易生不定根、不定芽的特点。如沙竹、沙柳、黄柳、骆驼刺、沙冬青等。,6 Topography 地形、地势一、Altitude 海拔高度Air Temperature humidity light ultraviolet radiation with altitud
40、e,especially in mountainous regionAltitude influences the growth and development,and distribution of plant.Soil Temperature humidity organic compound decompositionleachability and cineration，pH with Altitude。由于各方面因子的变化，生长在高海拔的树木高度变低、节间变短、叶的排列变密。海拔高度不同，树种不同。,二、Aspect 坡向 不同方位山坡，气候因子差别大。山南坡，光强、土温气温高、土壤
41、较干；北坡相反。在北方，由于降雨量小，土壤水分状况对植物生长影响极大，因而北坡可生长乔木，植被繁茂甚至一些阳性树也生于阴坡或半阴坡。南坡水分状况差，仅能生长一些耐旱的灌木和草本。在南方，雨量充足，阳坡植被非常繁茂。三、Topography change地势变化 地势陡峭起伏，坡度的缓急，不但会形成小气候变化，而且对水土的流失和积聚都有影响，因此可直接或间接影响树木的生长分布。陡峭地形土层薄，植物少；平缓地形土层厚，植物多。,第七节 Abiotic factors 生物因子 在植物生存的环境中，尚存在许多其它生物，如各种低等、高等动物，它们与植物间是有各种或大或小的、直接或间接的相互影响，而在植
42、物与植物间也存在着错综复杂的相互影响。Animals：Earthworm s 蚯蚓 activity can improve the soil fertility and increase calcium,so it is benefit to plant.Some snout beetles象鼻虫 can destroy all the seeds of fabaceous plants,and no seed can germinate,so these plant cannot multiply.许多高等动物，如鸟类、单食性的兽类等亦可对树木的生长起很大影响。例如，很多鸟类对散布种子有利
43、，但有的鸟却因可以吃掉大量的嫩芽而损害树木的生长。松属可吃掉大量的种子；兔子、野猪等每年可吃掉大量的幼苗或嫩枝。松毛虫在短期内能将成片的松林针叶吃光。当然，有益动物亦为植物带来许多有利的作用，如传粉、传播种子以及起到害虫天敌的生物防治作用。,Plant：symbiosis of plants may be benefit for one side or both sides,or may be harmful for one side or both sides.This relationship may be occurred in same species or different spe
44、cies.It is called intraspecific relations if it occur in same species,发生在同种之间的关系，称种内关系；It is called interspecific relations if it occur in different species 发生在不同种之间的关系，称种间关系。根据作用方式、机制的不同分为直接关系和间接关系。,一、Direct relations直接关系：1.Crown friction 树冠摩擦：当针阔叶树处于同一林地，由于阔叶树枝较长又具有弹性，受风作用便对针叶树冠产生摩擦，使针叶、芽、幼枝等受到损害。
45、林下更新的针叶幼树经过幼年缓慢生长阶段后，穿过阔叶林冠层时，树冠摩擦是比较普遍的现象。故常使树种更替过程的推迟。2.Trunks extrusion树干机械挤压：指林内两个树干部分地或大部分地紧密接触互相挤压的现象。天然林内有这种现象，人工林内多在树木受风和畜、兽类的机械作用产生倾斜时出现。树干挤压能早晨摩擦、损害形成层。随着林木双方的进一步发育，便互相连接，长成一体。如，通常所说的连理枝。,3.Adnascent relationship 附生 关系：某些苔藓、地衣、蕨类和高等植物，借助吸根着生于树干、枝、茎以及树叶上，进行特殊方式的生活，生理关系上与依附的林木没有联系或很少联系。温带、寒带
46、林内附生植物主要是苔藓、地衣和蕨类；热带林内附生植物种类繁多，以蕨类、兰科植物为主。它们主要依赖于积存在树皮裂缝内和枝叉内大气灰尘和植物残体生活，大气降水从树体上淋下许多营养物质，也是附生植物的营养来源。由于它们得来的水分来源于大气，晴朗干燥天气里失去水分后便处于假死状态。对附主影响不大，但热带森林中的绞杀榕、鸭脚木(Scheffera)等，却可缠绕附主树干，限制生长，最后将附主绞杀致死。,4.Climer攀缘植物：攀缘植物利用树干作为它的机械支柱，从而获得更多的光照。藤本植物与所攀缘的树木间没有营养关系，但对树木有如下影响：机械缠绕会使树干输导营养物质受阻、或使树干变形；由于树冠受藤本植物缠
47、绕，削弱林木的同化过程，影响林木正常生长。5.Symbiosis植物共生现象：Symbiosis are benefit for both sides.E.g.Fabaceous root nodule豆科植物的根瘤。,二、Indirect relations间接关系：是指相互分离的个体通过与生态环境的关系所产生的互相影响。petition竞争：竞争是指植物间为利用环境的能量和食物资源而发生的相互关系，这种关系主要发生在营养空间不足时。2.Change environment conditions改变环境条件：植物间通过改变环境因子，如小气候、土壤肥力、水分条件等发生的间接相互关系。（大树为小
48、树遮荫）3.Biochemical influence生物化学的影响：植物根、茎、叶等排放出的化学物质对其它植物的生长和发育产生抑制和对抗作用或者某些有益作用，这种现象叫做他感或异株克生。,8 Plant vertical and horizontal distribution 一、Vertical distribution 垂直分布 Vertical distribution indicates different plant distribution belts with altitude change.从低海拔向高海拔上升，每升100米，年平均气温约下降0.6，而相对湿度却增加。垂直分布
49、的模式是从热带雨林过渡到阔叶常绿林带、阔叶落叶林带、针叶林带、灌木林带、高山草原带、高山冻原带直至雪线。如图,-山顶 雪线（海拔M）冰雪 裸露岩石 5500-雪线 地衣冰寒带 5000 高山冻荒漠带 高山草原带 4800 高山草甸带 高山灌木带 4500 灌木带（杜鹃属、绣线菊属、山柳属、松属）乔木分界线 针叶树带 针叶林带（云杉属、圆柏属）4000 落叶阔叶树带 针叶、阔叶混交林带 3800（云杉属、圆柏属、桦木属 杨属、柳属、榆属等）常绿阔叶林带 热带雨林带 中国西部某地植物垂直分布图,-乔木分布界限 金老梅属、,二、Horizontal distribution水平分布 植物的水平分布主
50、要是纬度、经度的气候带的影响，而地形及土壤因子也起着一定的作用。气候带的基本状况是自赤道向两极，热量随纬度的提高而渐减，并依经线的方向距离海洋愈远时，则由海洋性气候渐变为大陆性气候，植物就受这种变化的影响而形成自然的水平分布带。如图：在热带靠近海洋处的炎热多湿气候，特别是有利于常绿的中生形态结构的林木和阴性的湿生形态树木的发展，故形成热带雨林及阔叶常绿树带。从海边向大陆深处，空气湿度渐减，出现了明显的旱季与雨季的季节性变化，故形成具有中生、旱生形态结构的硬叶植物和冬绿植物的稀疏草原带；再向大陆腹部深入，则因降水量愈益减少，树木不能生长只能生长草本植物的热带草原地带；继续向大陆中心深入，水分极少
