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1、Linguistics vs.Traditional Grammar,A.Linguistics is descriptive,not prescriptive.,A linguist is interested in what is said,not what he thinks ought to be said.He describes language in all its aspects,but does not prescribe rules of correctness.,He does not believe that there is some absolute standar
2、d of correctness,concerning language use.,Instead,he would prefer to be an observer and recorder of facts,but not a judge.,Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.The grammarian saw it as his task to formulate the standards of correctness and to impose these,if necessary,upon th
3、e speakers of the language.,B.Linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the written.,People insisted on learning to use language in accordance with the usage of the best authors of classical times,and these authors existed only in written form.,Linguists give priority to the spoken lang
4、uage,because it precedes the written language everywhere in the world and most writing systems are derived from the vocal sounds.,c)Linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.,Weakpoints of Traditional Grammar,规定语言学家在判断语言的正确与否时常从逻辑学的
5、角度加以观察，但是却忽视了语言在受一般逻辑规律支配的同时，又有自身的规律，使得语言规律与逻辑规律既有相似性又有相异性。,以双重否定为例。从逻辑学的角度来看，否定之否定就是肯定。正因如此，规定语法学家认为：I didnt do nothing.正确的解释为:It is not true that I did nothing.或 I did something.,但是，英语使用的现实却是这两种相互矛盾的语义都存在。语义的区别是通过语言的语音规律加以实现的。在前者，“didnt”重读，而后者“didnt不重读。,再看下列例句：All the children didnt sleep(All the
6、children failed to sleep.)All the children didnt sleep.(Not all the children failed to sleep.),这两个话语在语义上的差异也是违反了传统逻辑规律。语音规律的介入很好地解决了这一问题：All the children didnt sleep.(重音落在sleep上，且使用降调)All the children didnt sleep.（重音落在all上，且使用降升调）,超切分特征不仅影响到对句子中的各短语的否定与肯定，而且它还可以波及到整个从属分句。在大学英语精读课第三册Why I Teach一课中有这样
7、一段话：,Certainly,I dont teach because teaching is easy for me.Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living:mechanic,carpenter,writer.,1）I dont teach because teaching is easy for me.(Teaching is easy for me,so I dont teach.)2)I dont teach because teaching is eas
8、y for me.(I teach,but it isnt because teaching is easy for me.),在这一例句中，I dont teach because teaching is easy for me.在形式上允许两种语义的解释：,两种语调单位对比如下:,1）I dont teach because teaching is easy for me.2)I dont teach because teaching is easy for me.,a）What disturbed John was being disregarded by everyone.b)What
9、 disturbed John was being disre garded by everyone.,超切分特征传达了说话人的态度，即使是一个词，当被赋予不同的语调时，也会折射出说话人不同的态度：No(a matter-of-fact statement)No(questioning)No(doubtful but encouraging)No(indignant;emphatic prohibition and scolding),超切分特征通过重音有规则的分配使得本族语者把宾语前置的修饰语与其他修饰语区分开来，试比较：A bull-/fight involves bulls.A/bull
10、-calf is a young bull.,AFrench/teacher teaches French.A/French teacher is French.Atoy/factory produces toys.A/toy factory is a model of a factory used as a toy.,在看以下例句：I cant care less.I can care less.按照逻辑的一般规律，这两个话语应该有着相互对立的语义，但是它们的理性语义却是一样的，即：I dont mind.,事实上，这种突破一般逻辑规律的现象在其它语言中也时常可见。以汉语为例：今天街上好热闹
11、。今天街上好不热闹。,再看汉语中的“差点儿”和“差点儿没”两个表达法：他差点儿摔倒了。他差点儿没摔倒。,用“差点儿”或“差点儿没”去与说话人不希望实现的事情搭配，那么它们都是指事情接近实现而没有实现。,我差点儿通过了考试。我差点儿没通过考试。,没”去修饰说话人希望实现的事情，那么“差点儿”含有惋惜希望的事情未能实现，而“差点儿没”是指庆幸希望的事情发生了。,如果用“差点儿”和“差点儿,e)There are no absolute standards of correctness in language.,R.R.K.Harman et al(1973:328)在“Dictionary of
12、Language and Linguistics”中指出：“标准语言是社会赞成使用的一种语言变体，在正式谈话、协作以及对外国人进行语言教学时使用。”,英国LINC Project(1994)把标准英语等同于“词汇和语法的正确形式”。Trudgill(1975)在论及标准英语时认为，标准英语“是一种方言。它为大部分受过良好教育的人所使用，通常用作书面语，是广播、电视等宣传媒介所使用的语言形式。”,虽然语言学家几乎都从语言使用和语言使用者两个方面对标准英语进行定义，但是在实践中，衡量语言标准尺度仍然以规定语法为基础，忽视大量语用数据与规定法则的抵触现象。这种抵触在现代英语中越来越明显。,以不定冠词
13、为例，规定语法对“an”和“a”的使用有着明确的规定。“an”用于发音以元音为首的词前，“a”用于发音以辅音起始的词前。,可是不定冠词在有地位、有身份的使用者身上，在正式场合或广播电视媒介中，使用情况又是怎样的呢？,Penny Stewart 和Richard F.Fawcett(1994)在对收集的大量的语用数据进行分析后指出，“an”正在从美国标,准英语中消失。他们采集的部分语言数据如下:,Names Example TimePoliticians:George Bush a increasingly Jan.24,1990 a internal Jan.24,1990 a undefen
14、ded Feb.15,1991 Jimmy Carter a election process Jun.14,1976Charles Schultz a arrangement Dec.9,1986 a accurate Dec.9,1986,News BroadcastersDavid Lettermana article Sept.2,1980Dick Cavett a emergency Feb.17,1986Eddie Murphy a Oscar Apr.11,1988Bryant Gumbel a NBCApr.27,1990ProfessionalsNancy Warr a im
15、pression Jan.17,1990John W.Nields a air Jan.15,1991,Actors:Edith a in-depth report Oct.29,1986Andrey Meadows a interesting Nov.15,1986Guests on TV Talk Shows Howard Hunt a exchange Oct.12,1986George Carvera openAug.26,1986,对不定冠词“a”的上述偏离标准英语的使用是不能简单地根据规定语法的“错”与“对”来进行价值判断。以上的语用现象从一个侧面反映英语不定冠词的使用正处在变化过
16、程之中，表现出“a”对“an”的取代趋势。,这一正在发生的变化确实值得注意。从语义的角度来看，规定语法“an”与“a”的传统区别也只具有纯语法意义，并无语义价值区别。在信息上，词尾“n”属于多余成分。这就使得“n”的脱落成为可能。,从语言的发展来看，“a”对“an”在现代英语中的替代也只是限定词“an”向“a”演变过程的继续。翻开词源学词典便可以得知，在英语中原先只有不定冠词“an”。在公元1125年，Old English Chronicles中就记录了“an pund”(a pound)的用法。,到了公元1150年，“an”位于辅音前逐渐失去词尾“n”，但在元音前仍然保留了词尾“n”。现在
17、“an”在元音前也失去词尾“n”的趋势可以看作为由“an”到“a”变化过程的最后阶段。,进入90年代，英语在不定冠词使用上还在进一步发展，不定冠词在某些结构中有被省略的趋势，而且这些趋势表现出自己特定的规律。一般来说，需要满足以下条件：,1）名词处在表语结构位置，且处在表语位置的名词被另一可分级形容词所修饰，例如：a.I am important artist.b.?I am artist.,2）如果形容词不是可分级形容词，不定冠词不可省略，例如：,a.It is an atomic weapon.b.?It is atomic weapon.,在语言学领域，一般认为上述a类例句的存在是由以下
18、两种结构并合的结果：a.He is important.b.He is an artist.,传统语法学家从语言规定规则出发对这类冠词省略现象视而不见，但是不定冠词省略现象大量出现在英国广播电台、电视台和报刊杂志上，例如：1）(On Independent Television)It is extremely anxious time-worrying.(Eric Brady:1 June 1993),I prefer to work with people who do think I am import artist.,(Tues.21 June 1994),2）(A male perfo
19、rming artist on BBC Radio 4s Today Program),3）(New York times Service in the International Herald Tribune),(Suzanne Cassidy:25 Mar.1992),It is great shame.We are all fired,oh dear!,4）(The Sunday Times)An innocent man has been slaughtered He was decent,caring man who was disgusted by the vandalism an
20、d lawlessness around here.(James Dalrymple;13 Jun 1993),5）(The Sunday Times)This was an error,but it was influential conflation of what the Routledge Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations lists as two separate items.,6）(New York Times Service in the International herald Tribune)It is contemporary
21、mountain survival kit and more.(John Noble Wilford:23 Jun 1994),在Collins English Dictionary中，对“they”的第三条定义是：they:not standard,refers to an indefinite antecedent such as one,whoever,or anybody，例如：If anybody objects,they can go.,their:belonging to or associated in some way with an indefinite anteceden
22、t such as one,whoever,or anybody，例如：,对“their”的第三条定义是：,Everyone should bring their own lunch.,The use of their as in sense 3 is sometimes regarded as unacceptable in formal contexts,though it has existed in the language for at least five centuries,and is common in informal contexts.,(Collins English
23、Dictionary:third edition.1991.p.1597),该字典对“their”的定义更是耐人寻味。在对“their”的注释中，字典编撰人员承认“their”作为单数无标记物主代词已有至少五个世纪的历史，且在非正式场合下广为使用，但是仍然认为“their”的这种单数无标记使用有时在正式语境中不可接受。稍有推理能力的人就会发现既然这种单数无标记使用有时在正式语境中不可接受，这就意味着这种用法有时在正式语境中也是可以接受的。,由Henry Bosley Woolf主编的Websters New Collegiate Dictionary(1977)给“they”和“their”的
24、部分定义如下：,they:often used with an indefinite third person singular antecedenttheir:used with an indefinite third person singular antecedent:anyone in their senses-W.H.Auden,在给“they”和“their”的使用作定义时，字典编撰人员对这一使用的可接受性没有进行任何主观价值判断，足以说明“they”和“their”的单数无标记使用已经广为流传。,Sinclair在1987年编著的Collins Cobuild English L
25、anguage Dictionary(CCELD)中指出：,he:1）to refer to a man or a boy who has already been mentioned or named,or whose identity is known.2）to refer to a person whose sex is not known or is not stated,esp.after pronoun such as“someone”,or“nobody”or when you have used a singular noun to refer to a particular
26、class or group of people.Some people dislike this use.,they:1）Refer to people,animals or things that have already been mentioned or whose identity is known.2）Instead of“he”or“she”,to refer to a person whose sex is not known or stated,esp.after pronoun,such as“someone”or“nobody”,or when you have used
27、 a singular noun to refer generally to a particular class or group of people.Some people dislike this use.,Sinclair本人是反对“he”的无标记使用，赞成把“they”作为中性单数代词去使用。这种用法在他编写的这本字典中到处可见，如：,strut:someone who struts walks in a proud way with their head held high and their chest out,as if they are very important.Stub
28、 out:when someone stubs out a cigarette or cigar,they put it out by pressing the burning end against something hard.,Stubborn:someone who is stubborn is determined to do what they want and very unwilling to change their mind.Stuff:If you stuff someone in game,you beat them easily.,现代英语在句法上的另一变化趋势是“w
29、ho”对“whom”的取代。在规,定语法中，它们的功能分配是“明确的”。前者用于主格，,后者用于宾格。这种功能的划分可以追溯到18世纪规定语法的正式建立。,可是语言的发展并不像规定语法家所想象的那样。它的发展趋势也不以他们的意志为转移。自从规定语法的建立，这一 规则就受到了语言使用者的挑战，尤其是有影响的文学家对“who”和“whom”的混用使得它们在功 能上的划分变得模糊不清，就连 著名的英国文学家Shakespeare也 没有搞清楚“who”和“whom”的使 用功能,例如：,(Shakespeare:The Tempest),And in these fits I leave them,
30、while I visit Young Ferdinard,whom they suppose is drownd.,This is a creature,would she begin a sect,might quench the seal of all professors else,makes proselytes of who she but bid follow.(Shakespeare;the Winters Tale),规定语法在18世纪对“who”与“whom”的使用规则只有两条：,1）“who”只充当主语；2）“whom”只用作宾语。在作介词宾语时，无论介词位于代词“who
31、m”之前，还是之后，都必须用“whom”。,Sledd(1987),Quirk(1985)以及 Sinclair(1990)继18世纪有关“who”与“whom”的规定语法之后，认为“who”除了紧跟介词之后需要用“whom”以外，在其它情况下均可以使用“who”。,Sapir的观点比起Sinclair等人的观点要显得激进得多。他认为“whom”在心理上是孤立的。,他认为（1921：169）“唯一可以挽救形式配置的方法是完全抛弃 whom，因为我们经失去了创造新宾格形式的能力。,Flor Aarts（1989）曾用以下调查问卷在Louisiana State university对大学生进行了
32、调查，调查的部分内容如下：,(1)The man _ ran the stop sign is dangerous(2)The little girl _ you watched eat all the cookies is fat.(3)That guy _ you met last night is a bit nuts.(4)The dude_ you delivered the pizza to is my brother.,调查人员经过调查发现，在例（1）中选择“who”的为100%，例（2）和例（3）中选择“who”与“whom”分别是60%和40%。在例（4）中，选择“who”占
33、被调查人员的80%。从以上调查结果不难发现，英语在发展过程中越来越显示出对“who”的宠爱，而对“whom”则逐渐开始冷落。,规定语言学家所规定的各种语言规范另一致命的弱点是没有置语言于社会之中，并在社会中考察语言在语音、句法和词汇中的变异情况。一个人的语言库总会存在着不同语言的变体形式。人们根据交际目的，交际场合、交际对象等不同以选择不同的形式从而达到不同的社会效果。,Garfinkel(1967)曾让他的学生在对朋友说话时采用所谓正式文体，并观察朋友对正式文体所作的反应，例如：,(Between Friends in the Dormitory)Trish:Would it be poss
34、ible for you to wait for me after class?Ana:Yes,of course.Its possible.Why are you talking so proper?,从规定语法的角度来分析，Trish的话可谓是标准英语，因而是正确的，高雅的。但是它们所传递的信息却是违反社会交际准则的。Trish没有正确的把握双方的关系，造成蕴涵信息的不得体。,这里引起Ana不满的原因并不是语言符号所指语义本身所传递的内容，而是Trish首先使用标准语体，拉远了他与Ana的社会距离。这种语体传递了Trish主观上故意在情感上疏远Ana的含义。Ana出于对Trish使用的言语形式的不满，也采用了同样正规的语体以对Trish 进行嘲讽。,
