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1、河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Chapter 4 Syntax,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,outline,4.1 Introduction4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar,
2、河南大学外语学院 马应聪,4.1 Introduction,Syntax:study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words.Difference between morphology and syntaxMorphology:the internal structure of words Syntax:the combination of words,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Syntactic rules,(1)a.The hunter fears the cries
3、 of the blackbirds.b.The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter.(2)a.Jack looked up the word.b.Jack looked the word up.(3)*Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the.Conclusion:The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning.Every sentence is a sequence of words but not every s
4、equence of words is a sentence.Sentence formation has rules,so that we have well/ill formed or(un)grammatical sentences.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,4.2 Word Classes,Nouns are words used to refer to people,objects,creatures,places,events,qualities,phenomena and abstract ideas as if they were all things.cats,dogs,w
5、ar,wedding,courage,beauty,rain,love,hatredAdjectives are words that describe the thing,quality,state or action which a noun refers to.beautiful,redVerbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the“things”in events.run,walk,seem,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Adverbs are words that describe or
6、add to the meaning of a verb,an adjective,another adverb,or a sentence,and which answers the questions introduced by how,where,when,etc.carefully,slowly,then,nowPrepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time,place and other connections involving actions and things
7、.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Pronouns are words which may replace nouns or noun phrases.Conjunctions are words used to connect and indicate relationships between events and things.Articles,Exclamations,Numerals,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,The definitions above are useful for identifying most forms,but they are never completely
8、accurate.A different approach might focus on some other properties of the word classes.For example,a noun can be defined as a form that comes after an article(a,an and the)and can take inflections for possessive(-s)and plural(-s).Of course,not all nouns(eg.information and mud)have all these characte
9、ristics.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Phrase structure rules,Representation(通过词性表征句法):The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds Art+N+V+Art+N+Prep+Art+NThe rules which govern the structure of phrases are known as phrase structure rules or rewrite rules.Such rules allow for the generation of grammatical sentences
10、 in a language.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,4.3 The Prescriptive Approach,Definition:An approach taken by some grammarians,mainly in eighteenth-century England,who lay down rules for the correct or“proper”use of English by following Latin.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,(a)You must not split infinitives.(b)You must not end a senten
11、ce with a preposition.To boldly go.To go boldly.Preposition is not a word you can end a sentence with.(funny),河南大学外语学院 马应聪,4.4 The Descriptive Approach,Definition:An approach taken throughout the 20th century which attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used by collecti
12、ng samples.Various techniques may be employed.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,4.4.1 Structural analysis,A descriptive approach studying the distribution of linguistic forms in a language by means of test frames,which can be sentences with empty slots in them.（分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系）(4)The _ makes a lot of noise.(nouns:car,
13、radio,child,dog)(5)I heard a _ yesterday.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog),河南大学外语学院 马应聪,(6)_ makes a lot of noise.(noun phrases:it,the car,a dog,Peter,a new car,the scholar with an American accent)(7)I hear _ yesterday.(noun phrases:it,the car,a dog,Peter,a new car,the scholar with an American accent),河南大
14、学外语学院 马应聪,4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis(Bloomfield:直接成分分析法),Language is linear and hierarchical.We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level,that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion.The first divisions or cuts of a co
15、nstruction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents.The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constit
16、uents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis(IC).,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis)has two ways of representation:Tree diagram brackets,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Tree diagram,(8)The man bought a car.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Brackets,
17、Brackets can also be used but are arguably less easy to read.(9)a.the man bought a car b.the man bought a car c.the man bought a car d.the man bought a car,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Merit:Solving Disambiguity,old men and women,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar(成分结构语法),A grammar which analyzes senten
18、ces using only the idea of constituency,which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels.The main principle is labeling and bracketing based on the idea that linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions or can themselves be made up of smaller parts.(binary and verb-centered),河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Tree
19、 diagram,Binary,Verb-centered,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Generative Rules(早期转换语法的概念短语结构语法),The syntax of a language is then seen as a set of rules which generate sentences in that language.SNPVPVPVtr.NPNPArtNVtr.buy,sell,build,repair,wash,etc.Nman,woman,car,house,bicycle,etc.Arta,an,the,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,(12)a.The man
20、 bought a car.b.The man sold a car.c.The woman repaired the bicycle.,Sentences generated：,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,More complex rules,There is a large number of sentences in English that such rules cannot produce.This set of rules has very limited generative power.The above rules only deal with simple noun phra
21、ses and transitive verbs.They do not allow us to deal with any part of the verb structure such as tense,modals or aspect.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Sentences generated：,(13)a.The man sells the car in the garage.b.The woman washes the bicycle in the street.c.The boy repairs the bicycle in the house.,
22、河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Merit:Solving Disambiguity,(14)The boy repairs the bicycle in the house.in the house around the corner(Recursion,Recursiveness递归性)Mary helped George.Cathy thought Mary helped George.John said Cathy thought Mary helped George.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,A childrens rhyme:This is the house that Jack bu
23、ilt.This is the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.This is the dog that chased the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.This is the man that keeps the dog that chased the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.This is the woman that married the man that keeps the dog that chased
24、 the cat that lived in the house that Jack built.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Some problems of CSG:,A.Lexical selection restriction With simple constituent structure rules,any noun can be introduced in a combination with any verb.This does not happen in natural language.We cannot say:(15)*The belief washed an appl
25、e.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,B.Discontinuousness(16)The boy cleaned the room up.(17)The student looked the word up in the dictionary.C.Relation between sentences that seem to be closely related structurally and semantically(18)a.Brian hit George b.George was hit by Brian.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Noam Chomsky,(1928-)，founde
26、r of Transformational Grammar,4.6 Transformational Grammar,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Grammar:there in Transformational Grammar,is in the broadest way,a theory of grammar including phonology and semantics.A linguistic theoryWe shall only focus on the syntactic aspect of transformational grammar.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,I.Cl
27、assical theory,Three parts:phrase structure rulestransformational rules,morphophonemic rules.SNP+VP;simple active declarative kernel sentences(短语结构规则建立在成分结构分析法的基础之上，但是更加形式化；强调自上而下的生成。),河南大学外语学院 马应聪,A transformation rule is a sequence of symbols which could be rewritten conventionally as different se
28、quence.passive transformation NP1AuxVNP2NP2 AuxbeenVbyNP1(19)a.The boy has repaired the bicycle.b.The bicycle has been repaired by the boy.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,The morphophonemic rules would apply to the output of the transformational rules.Their function is to provide the correct morphological shape to th
29、e various parts of the structure and finally to give the appropriate phonological description.(公式-言语表达),河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Tree diagram,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,II.Standard theory,competence and performance(Chapter 1)deep structure and surface structureThe deep structure of a sentence is its most basic structure both
30、 semantically and syntactically.The surface structure is the form that people can actually say.It is fairly arbitrary.Two superficially similar structures may convey a substantially different message.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,deep structure and surface structure,Consider the following pair of sentences:(20)a.Jo
31、hn is easy to please.b.John is eager to please.In the first sentence John is doing the pleasing,and in the latter he is on the receiving end.Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings,for they have quite different deep structures.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Standard theory,河南大学外语学院 马
32、应聪,Different stages of generative grammar,III.Extended Standard TheoryIV.Revised Extended Standard TheoryV.Government and Binding Theory(GB)Principles and Parameters Approach(P&P)VI.Minimalist Program(MP),河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Other branches of GG:,Throughout the development of transformational grammar,Choms
33、ky has maintained the centrality of syntax.The syntactic component of transformational grammar is the generative core.Other components are interpretive and dependent on the basic and deep syntactic structure.Not everyone agreed with him on this point.Generative semantics:give semantics the central g
34、enerative role.Case grammar:see syntax as central but prefer to work with“case”structures and dependency relations.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar(SFG),Linguists who adopt this view are interested in relating the various kinds of structures and patterns that language shows to the funct
35、ions that language fulfills and to the social settings in which it is used.Difference from TG:function and contextual,purposefulHallidays three meta-functions:ideational,interpersonal,textual,M.A.K Halliday,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Ideational 概念功能,Ideational:the function in which we conceptualize the world as a
36、 representation of experience.（及物性（动词）、语态、）(19)The boy kicked the post.(The post was kicked by the boy)(20)The man liked the new house.(21)The child is homeless.(22)The girl laughed.(23)The visitor said“hello”.(24)There is a girl over there.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Transitivity,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Interp
37、ersonal 人际功能,Interpersonal:set up and maintain social and personal relations,including communication roles such as questioner and respondent,and express the language users own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance.（语气（句型）、情态、语调）Traditionally declarative,interrogative and imperative,河
38、南大学外语学院 马应聪,Declarative:give information and perform the function of statementInterrogative:request something and perform the function of question Imperative:give instructions and perform the function of commandsHowever,exact correlation between form and function only occurs in idealized sentences.W
39、e can use declarative to ask questions,and to issue instructions.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Mood（语气）,Demand for,and offer of,goods or servicesDemand for,and offer of,linguistic information(27)a.Pass the salt.b.Please pass the salt.c.Can you pass the salt?d.Could you possibly pass the salt?e.You couldnt possibly
40、pass the salt,could you?Politeness increases：The more indirect the demand,the more polite it is felt to be.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Textual 语篇功能,Textual:enable the speaker or writer to construct a text,and the listener or reader to distinguish a text from a random set of sentences.（主位关系、信息结构（标记理论）、衔接）We have t
41、o decide how to order the parts of the message so as(a)to make it clear to our audience,and(b)to emphasize,or make prominent,the essential elements of it.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Information structure 信息结构,given(old,known)+new(unknown)marked vs unmarked(28)a.There is a bird on the tree.(unmarked)b.A bird is on
42、 the tree.(marked)(29)a.James enjoys tennis more than John.(less cumbersome)b.James enjoys tennis more than John enjoys tennis.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,thematic relation 主位关系,Theme主位:the first constituent,the starting point of the clause-what it is going to be about.Rheme述位:the rest of the clause(30)a.Gas expl
43、osion killed thousands.b.Thousands were killed by gas explosion.(31)a.The rain came down.(unmarked)b.Down came the rain.(marked),河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Functional approaches concentrating on textual aspects feature quite highly in discourse analysis and we will be returning to them in Chapter 7.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,
44、Summary,4.1 Definition4.2 Word Classes(ten:5+5)4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural Analysis(with slots)4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis(tree)4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar(tree,rules,merits,features,problems)4.6 Transformational Grammar(grammar,classic,
45、standard,stages,other branches)4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar(ideational,interpersonal,textual),河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Exercise,1.Define the following terms.syntax,word class,prescriptive approach,descriptive approach,IC analysis,ultimate constituent,transformational grammar,ideational function,interpersonal
46、 function,textual function2.Draw two tree diagrams for the following sentence to show the different relationship of in the car.The dog bit the man in the car.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Questions for chapter three and chapter four,1.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language?State what they are
47、 and illustrate how they work.2.Give examples to tell the difference between derivation and compounding.3.Give examples to illustrate the distinction between deep structure and surface structure.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Questions for chapter three and chapter four,1.How many types of morphemes are there in the
48、 English language?State what they are and illustrate how they work.There are two types of morphemes in the English language:free morphemes and bound morphemes.Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves such as help,table,room,etc.;bound morphemes are tho
49、se that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound,to form a word such as un-,diss-,anti-,-ful,-ish.,河南大学外语学院 马应聪,Questions(continued),2.Give examples to tell the difference between derivation and compounding.Theyre two important ways of forming ne
50、w words in the English language.In terms of morphemic analysis,derivation can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.For example,we add affix“-ly”to a free morpheme“quick”and we will get a derivative“quickly”.Compounding is the combination of two or sometimes more than two w
