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1、A History of English language,Speaker:YangningDuration:18 weeks,Topic 1:Overview,IntroductionLearning the history of English Why What HowCourse PlanTopic 1:Language change,Introduction,Learning the history of English Why is it necessary?What to learn in this course?How to learn the history of Englis
2、h?,Why?,English is a living languageTo know English is to know it as a wholeThe history of English can be a sample for the studies of the language change,What to learn?,Historical events and their effects on the development of EnglishThe change of English:form&meaningThree stages in the development
3、of English:Old English,Middle English and Modern English,How to learn,Lectures attendingParticipating discussionReading references Doing research,Course Plan,Topics简介英语史及课程设计英语及印欧语系古英语的特征古英语形成的外部影响,Topics,诺尔曼时期法语对英语的影响英语的地位重建中世纪的英语复兴时期的英语莎士比亚的语言,Topics,语法的“规范”十九世纪之后的英语英语方言美国英语总结：英语的过去，现在与未来Format of
4、 the final test,Facts about Human Languages,There are no primitive languages:all languages are equally complex and equally capable of expressing any idea in the universe.Wherever humans exist,language exists.The vocabulary of any language can be expanded to include new words for new concepts.All lan
5、guages change through time.,Facts about Human Languages,The relationships between the sounds and meanings of spoken languages and between the gestures(signs)and meanings of sign languages are for the most part arbitrary.All human languages utilize a finite set of discrete sounds(or gestures)that are
6、 combined to form meaningful elements or words,which themselves form an infinite set of possible sentences.,Facts about Human Languages,All grammars contain rules for the formation of words and sentences of a similar kind.Every spoken language includes discrete sound segments like p,n,or a,which can
7、 be defined by a finite set of sound properties or features.Every spoken language has a class of vowels and a class of consonants.,Facts about Human Languages,Similar grammatical categories(for example,noun,verb)are found in all languages.There are semantic universals,such as male or female,animate
8、or human,found in every language in the world.Every language has a way of referring to past time,negating,forming questions,issuing commands,and so on.,Facts about Human Languages,Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending an infinite set of sentences.Any normal child,born
9、anywhere in the world,of any racial,geographical,social,or economic heritage,is capable of learning any language to which he or she is exposed.The differences we find among languages cannot be due to biological reasons.,The Language Change,Language UniversalsFunctions of LanguageHistorical events,Th
10、e language change,VocabularyWord orderPronunciation and phonological systemCase systemOrthographical features,Change in Word Order,and it put to flight and put it to flightit after roderode after itthen give the army him hostagesthen the army gave him hostagespromised that their king baptism receive
11、 wouldpromised that their king would receive baptism,Pronunciation,niht(night):hit(old English)Fyue(five):sleeve feeldes(fields):failed us(Middle English),Old English,Fder ure ue eart on heofonumsi in nama gehalgod tobecume in rice gewure in willa on eoran swa swa on heofonumurne gedghwamlican hlaf
12、syle us to dgand forgyf us ure gyltas swa swa we forgyfa urum gyltendumand ne geld u us on costnunge ac alys us of yfele solice.,Middle English,Oure fadir at art in heuenes halwid be i name;i reume or kyngdom come to be.Be i wille don in here as it is dounin heuene.yeue to us today oure eche dayes b
13、red.And foryeue to us oure dettis at is oure synnys as we foryeuen to oure dettouris at is to men at han synned in us.And lede us not into temptacion but delyuere us from euyl.,Early Modern English,Our father which art in heauen,hallowed be thy name.Thy kingdom come.Thy will be done in earth as it i
14、s in heauen.Giue us this day our daily bread.And forgiue us our debts as we forgiue our debters.And lead us not into temptation,but deliuer us from euill.Amen.-(King James Version,1611),Why does language change?,Borrowing(examples from English)Latin:animal,deficit,exit,extra,item,logic,popeFrench:ar
15、t,beauty,dinner,dress,jail,napkin,passionGreek:comedy,climax,dialogue,drama,episodeSpanish:adobe,canyon,cigar,guerilla,plaza,vanillaGerman:angst,kindergarten,pretzel,sauerkraut,spielItalian:attitude,balcony,opera,piano,tempo,umbrellaPersian:paradise,khaki,van,pyjamas,Arabic:algorithem,algebra,minare
16、t,sultan,Example of English,Borrowings from French(after Norman Invasion).Sometimes both versions survived:French Englishporkswinebeefcow,Why does language change?,Simplificationphonological system:Persian:long features not productive FrontBacki u e e:o:o Q ao:,e:-u,ishe:r-shirResult:homophones:shir
17、:lion/milk,Why does language change?,Simplificationmorphological system Simplification of the Case system from the ancient IE languages to their daughter languages.syntactic systemLoss of ergative construction in Persian:the verb agreed with the object if in past tense.,Attitudes to language change,
18、Fortunately,I have a spare fan belt.Frankly,you ought to stop seeing Bill.Mercifully,the ceasefire appears to be holding.Undoubtedly,she has something up her sleeve.Hopefully,well be there in time for lunch.,Function of language change,I hope well be there in time for lunch,but I suspect we wont mak
19、e it.Hopefully,well be there in time for lunch,but I suspect we wont make it.,My car is being repairedMy house is being paintedThis problem is being discussed at todays meeting.My car is repairingMy house is painting This problem is discussing at todays meeting.,History of English,Old EnglishMid fif
20、th century A.D:Germanic tribes invaded England.449-1066:Several dialects emerged.West Saxon became the most important one.This language is now called Old English or Anglo Saxon,The History of English,Middle English:Norman conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066.1066-1500Latinate wordsMo
21、dern English:1500-nowGreat vowel shift,References,Baugh&Cable(1993),A History of the English Language,Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice Hall李赋宁（1991),英语史，北京：商务印书馆,Review,PointsWhy,what,how Course planFacts about Human Languages Language ChangeBorrowing,Review,NotionsLanguage Faculty Language UniversalBor
22、rowingCase,Topic 2,Language FamilyEnglish and Indo-European Languages,Overview,Language familiesComparative MethodIndo-European LanguagesGermanic Languages,Language Change,AccentsDialectsLanguages,Language Family,In time,with enough migrations,a single language can evolve into an entire family of la
23、nguages.Languages in the same family,share many common grammatical features and many of the key words,Language and People,People speak languages from the same family does not mean that their biological families are closely related.,Language and Dialect,The difference between a language and a dialect
24、 can be political rather than linguistic.Mandarain Cantonese,General Data,In 2003,the total number of languages in the world was estimated to be 6,80990%of these languages are spoken by less than 100,000 people,General Data,The Cambap language(Central Cameroon)has 30 speakers;the Leco language(Boliv
25、ian Andes)has about 20 speakers.A total of 46 languages have just a single speaker.Extinct and Endangered Languages,Indo-European Languages,The single largest language family,Indo-European has about 150 languages and about three billion speakers.Languages include Hindi and Urdu(400 million),Bengali(
26、200 million),Spanish(300 million),Portuguese(200 million),French(100 million),German(100 million),Russian(300 million),and English(400 million)in Europe and the Americas.With English,one can reach approximately one billion people in the world.,IndianIranianArmenianHellenicAlbanianItalicBalto-SlavicG
27、ermanicCeltic,Language Classification,Isolating each idea expressed in a separate word or morpheme;words tend to be monosyllabic e.g,Chinese;Agglutinative words made of multiple syllables;each syllable has meaning e.g.,Turkish.For example,ev(house),evler(houses),evlerde(in the houses),evlerden(from
28、the houses),Language Classification,Incorporative major sentence elements incorporated into single word e.g.,Inuktitut(Eskimo):Qasuiirsarvigssarsingitluinarnarpuq means Someone did not find a completely suitable resting place,Language Classification,Inflective an alteration in or addition to a form
29、of a word to indicate such things as case,gender,number,mood,and tense;one fusional affix may mark several grammatical categories at the same time,e.g.,Latin&Old English,Comparative Method,The purposeTo detect historical relationships between languages To establish a consistent relationship hypothes
30、is by reconstructing:,Comparative Method,the common ancestor of the languages in questiona plausible sequence of regular changes by which the historically known languages can be derived from that common ancestor,Procedure,regular correspondences in lexicona regular correspondence between Latin d-and
31、 English t-:decem|ten duo|two duco|tow Old Latin dingua|tongue,Procedure,A really systematic correspondence can hardly be accidental.Reconstruct protoformsCompare grammatical morphemes(word-forming affixes and inflectional endings),patterns of declension and conjugation,Grouping Language Families,“P
32、hono-semantic setsLanguages evolved according to certain rules.by analyzing the words in the Proto-Indo-European language,one can to some extent examine the time and place of the Proto-Indo-Europeans.,yellow spot have over 80%of transparent words orange zone share over 50%,Cognates,Related wordsSkyC
33、ountingAnimal,Origin of IE,EuropeWest Asia,The importance of Sanskrit,In 1786,Sir William Jones,a supreme court judge in India,proposed that Sanskrit,the language of ancient India,was similar to Greek and Latin,Inflectional system,Eastern Turkey,Origin of I-E,Many I-E languages have cognates for the
34、 honey bee and for a fermented honey drink(e.g.Greek mli(honey)and mlissa(bee);Latin mel(honey);Old English milisc(honey sweet),medu(mead)and mildeaw(honey dew);Sanskrit madhu(honey);Dutch mede)Bees are not found in any of the Asiatic sites proposed as the IE homeland.,Origin of I-E,Common words for
35、 snow,winter,spring;for dog,horse,cow,sheep bear but not camel,lion,elephant,or tiger;for beech,oak,pine,willow,but not palm or banyan I-E Cultural:complex sense of family relationship and organization;used gold and silver but not copper and iron;words for wheel,axle,and yoke show they used animals
36、to pull wheeled vehicles;they farmed(not nomadic)with plows and kept domestic animals;they believed in multiple gods.,Germanic Languages,The use of strong and weak adjectives.Modern English adjectives dont change except for comparative and superlative;this was not the case with Old English,where adj
37、ectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative,or not.The sound shift known as Grimms Law.,The Grimms Law,1822,German,Jacob Grimm;Germanic languages and SanskritVoiceless stops/p/,/t/,/k/were changed to fricatives/f/,/,/h/trs(Latin),three(En
38、glish)centum(L),hundred(E),Verners law,1875,Karl Verner:centum,hundred/t/,/?/t/d/Germanic languagesvoiceless fricatives become voiced when the accent is not on the vowel immediately precedingOld English:cwean(to say)ic cw(singular)we cwdon(plural)cweden(past participle),Features of Germanic Language
39、s,First Sound Shift(commonly known as Grimms Law):the Indo-European stops bh,dh,gh,p,b,t,d,k,and g underwent a series of shifts.The Second Sound Shift(also known as the High German Sound Shift)affected the high but not the low Germanic languages,so English was not affected.,Features of Germanic Lang
40、uages,Indo-European distinctions of tense and aspect(indicates whether an action or state is viewed with regard to beginning,duration,incompletion,etc.)were lost except for the present and past tenses.These two tenses are still the only ones indicated by inflection in Modern English;future and perfe
41、ct tenses are expressed in phrases-e.g.,I will have gone,etc.,Features of Germanic Languages,Germanic languages thus have two types of verbs,weak(regular)and strong(irregular).Strong verbs indicate tense by an internal vowel change(e.g.swim,swam,swum).The weak form is the living method of inflection
42、,and many originally strong verbs have become weak.,Features of Germanic Languages,Germanic developed weak and strong adjectives.The weak declension was used when the modified noun was preceded by another word which indicated case,number,and gender.The strong declension was used in other situations.
43、Examples from Old English:a geongan ceorlas the young fellows and geonge ceorlas young fellows.(The weak adjective ends in-an while the strong adjective ends in-e.),Features of Germanic Languages,The Indo-European free accentual system allowed any syllable to be stressed.In Germanic the accent(or st
44、ress)is mainly on the root of the word,usually the first syllable.,Features of Germanic Languages,Several Indo-European vowels were modified in the Germanic languages.For example,Indo-European/a:/became/o:/.Compare Latin mater and Old English modor.,Germanic Languages,Germanic has a number of unique
45、 vocabulary items,words which have no known cognates in other Indo-European languages.Among these words are Modern English rain,drink,drive,broad,hold,wife,meat,fowl.,Notions,Proto LanguageCognatesSound Shift,Case,In inflected languages,nouns are said to decline into different forms,or morphological
46、 cases.Morphological cases are one way of indicating grammatical case,Case,Case marking involves attaching an affix to the root(or basic part)of a noun to indicate the role that noun plays in a sentence.The most important,or core grammatical case markers of a language are those that mark the subject
47、 of an intransitive verb(IS),the subject(or agent)of a transitive verb(TS)and the object(or patient)of a transitive verb(TO).,Case,N V N:S V OJohn killed Sally.N N VN N+object-marker V.He me hit.,Case,Languages are categorized into several case systems,based on how they group verb agents and patient
48、s into cases:Nominative-accusative:The agent of a verb is always in the nominative case.The patient,if one is specified,is in the accusative case.Ergative-absolutive:The patient of a verb is always in the absolutive case.The agent,if one is specified,is in the ergative case.,Case,The normative case
49、of a noun marks the subject.The accusative case of a noun is the case used to mark the direct object of a verb.The ergative case is assigned to the subject of a transitive verbThe Absolutive case marks the subject of a intransitive verb and object of transitive verb.,Case,Der Mann ist gekommen.The m
50、an arrived.the man arriveDer Mann hat den Knaben gesehen.the man the boy see The man saw the boy.,Case,Gizona etorri da.The man has arrived.(absolutive)manGizonak mutila ikusi du.The man saw the boy.(ergative)man boy,Topic 3,Old EnglishHistorical eventsThe Languages in England before EnglishThe feat
