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1、Implementing Task-Based Language Instruction实施任务型语言教学,Luo ShaoqianThe Chinese University of Hong KongBeijing Normal University,Three Dimensions of Language Teaching,Goal(i.e.why the language is being taught)Content(i.e.what is taught)-Type A syllabuses-Type B syllabusesMethodology(i.e.how it is taug
2、ht)-accuracy-fluency,Grammar Translation,Audio-Lingualism,Notional/Functional Teaching,Task-Based Teaching,Traditional-Task-based,Traditional form-focus pedagogy-Teacher controls topic development-turn taking is regulated by the teacher,Task-based pedagogy-students able to control topic development-
3、speakers can self-select,questions that questioner already knows the answer to little need or opportunity to negotiate meaningScaffolding directed primarily at enabling students to produce correct sentences,questions that the questioner does not know the answer toOpportunities to negotiate meaning w
4、hen communication problems ariseScaffolding directed primarily at enabling students to say what they want to say,Form-focused feedback,i.e.the teacher responds to the correctness of students utterancesThe teacher repeats what a student has said for the benefit of the whole class,Content-focused feed
5、back,i.e.the teacher responds to the message content of the students utteranceA student elects to repeat something another student or teacher has said as private speech or to establish intersubjectivity,First generation tasks,The main aim of first generation tasks is to develop students communicativ
6、e ability in a specific type of situation or area of language.The task is often structured around a particular set of functions or a simple problem.(Littlewood,2004;Ribe&Vidal,1993),Second generation tasks,The tasks in the second category pose challenges of a broader nature.They aim at developing no
7、t only communicative skills but also general cognitive strategies of handling and organizing information,such as analysing what information is needed in order to complete the task,collecting information,selecting relevant data,Third generation tasks,With third generation tasks,the scope widens furth
8、er.In addition to the communicative and cognitive strategies,they also aim to develop the personality of students through the experience of learning a foreign language.They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider educational objectives,such as enhancing motivation and awareness
9、,developing creativity and interpersonal skills,Task Types,Unfocussed tasksa.Pedagogicb.Real worldFocused tasks,An Example of a Pedagogic Task,Four students each has one picture and describes it to the rest of the class.Students from the rest of the class ask the four students questions about their
10、pictures.One student from the class tries to tell the story.If necessary Steps 2 and 3 are repeated.,Some Typical Pedagogic Tasks,Information-gap tasks(e.g.Same or Different)Opinion-gap tasks(e.g.Balloon debates)Reasoning-gap tasksPersonal tasksRole-play tasksNote:Tasks can be dialogic or monologic;
11、they can be performed orally or in writing.,A Real-World Task,Look at the e-mail message below.Listen to Mr.Pointers instructions on the tape.Make notes if you want to.Then write a suitable reply to Lesieur.Dear Mr.PointerPlease send flight number,date and time of arrival and I will arrange for some
12、one to meet you at the airport.Lesieur.,Role-play activities,Very often in role-play situations there is no actual outcome for students to achieve,other than to enact their roles.Students have to think of suitable things to say to each other,but they are unlikely to be exchanging real meaning.Jane W
13、illis,Two Approaches to Using Tasks,Use tasks to support a Type A approach.-task-supported teaching(Type A)-weak form of communicative language teachingUse tasks as the basis for teaching-task-based teaching(Type B)-strong form of communicative teaching,A Focused Task,Can you spot the differences?B,
14、A,A Focused Task,Can you spot the difference?A,B,A Framework for Describing Tasks,GoalInputConditionsPredicted outcomes:a.Processb.Product,Implementing task-based instruction from a processing-pedagogic view point,Dangers:if implemented without care,likely to create pressure for immediate communicat
15、ion rather than inter-language change and growth;may encourage learners to use excessively and prematurely lexical modes of communication.Possibility to minimize the dangers:to draw on cognitive psychology and second language acquisition research that emphasizes processing factors.Learners must be a
16、ble to develop their inter-language systems in more complex ways through cycles of analysis and synthesis:revisiting areas;learning in a simple,straightforward manner;developing by relexicalizing available syntactically which need not be used on such a basis.,The Methodology of Task-Based Teaching,T
17、hree phases in a task-based lesson:Pre-task phaseMain task phasePost-task phase,Task 1Highlighting main ideasTask 2Planning the weekend Task 3Expressing environmental views Task 4Shopping in a supermarketTask 5Radio weather information,Methodological stages in implementing tasks实施任务的方法阶段,阶段目标典型技巧任务前
18、重构（句子/思维）意识培养-语言创建准备/计划-减轻认知压力任务中平衡/融合语言的任务选择准确和流利控制压力任务后 1鼓励准确性及重构公众演示分析/测试任务后 2综合/分析演练任务排序任务分类,Methodological stages in implementing tasks,Stage Goal Typical techniquesPre-taskRestructuring Consciousness-establish target language raising-reduce cognitive loadPlanningDuring Mediate accuracy&fluency
19、Task choicePressure manipulationPost 1Encourage accuracy&Public performancerestructuringAnalysis/TestingPost 2Cycle of synthesis&Task sequencesanalysisTask families,Pre-task work,At this stage,the task itself is the primary factor,taskcompletion is the aim that dominate.1)To set up the relevant lang
20、uage for a task:to deal some form of pre-teaching,can be both explicit and implicit 2)Give learners a pre-task to do and then equip them with the language they need,Pre-task work,to ease the processing load when learners doing a task:a range of tasks can be used to reduce 认知复杂度 1)familiarity leads t
21、o recall schematic knowledge they have;2)observe similar tasks on video or listen to or read comparable tasks;3)do related tasks to activate schema4)engage in pre-task planning:language to use,meanings to express.So they can devote more attention to how to carry out thetask and produce more accurate
22、,complex,and fluent language.,The Pre-task Phase,Three purposes:-to serve to introduce new language that learners can use while performing the task;-to mobilize existing linguistic resources;-to ease processing load,and to push learners to interpret tasks in more demanding waysSome options:Allow the
23、 students time to plan.Provide a modelDo a similar taskPre-teach key linguistic items,The Pre-task Phase,On general cognitive demands of the task 对任务要求的总体感知An emphasis on linguistic factors 关注语言因素Supporting learners in performing a task similar to the task they will perform in the during-task phase
24、of the lesson 让学生做一些在后面完成任务时需要的准备工作Non-task preparation activities-brain storming 大脑风暴-mind map 思维图,The Pre-task Phase,Addressing linguistic demands of a task-predicting,i.e.asking learners to brainstorm a list of words related to the task title or topicProviding a model 提供一个示范Asking students to obs
25、erve a model of how to perform the task 让学生观察完成任务的模式Performing a similar task 完成一些简单的任务-simply observing others perform a task can help reduce the cognitive load on the learner(Skehan,1996),这个阶段是以学习者为中心及任务型学习模式的有关理论为指导，在Pre-task phase这一环节的教学安排时，考虑为学生的学习创设良好的学习环境，使学生成为主动学习者。在呈现新的内容时，将构成任务内容的新的语言材料的音、
26、意和语言使用环境同时输入给学生。,The During-Task Phase,Some options:Participatory structure 参与方式:Whole-class vs.small group work;individual or interaction Set a time for completing the task.Vary the number of participants.Introduce a surprise element.Tell students they will have to present a report to the whole cla
27、ss.pair and group work are seen as central to task-based teaching;not all tasks are interactive,（二）新语言材料的操练（during-task phase）,the main task phase是指语言技能的习得过程。,研究内容：探讨了如何使语言技能的训练能够吸引学生积极、主动的参与，如何使语言知识的积累、语意功能的训练与主题结合。,During the task,At this stage,learners are reminded that fluency is not theonly goa
28、l during task completion,and that restructuringand accuracy also have importanceTask choice:the appropriate difficulty level.too difficult:excessive mental processing to communicate any sort of meaning:ellipsis,context,strategies and lexicalization which reduce the pedagogic value of a task-based ap
29、proach.2too easy:boring,no serious engagement no gain in terms of stretching interlanguage or automaticity development(Swain,1985),During the task,Syllabus:implementation decisions to alter the task difficultymanipulate the way in which attention is directed-accuracy to be stressed?-specific structu
30、res to be usedto make a task less difficult:visual support,such as a diagram to make a task more difficult:surprise elements which learners dont expect,e.g.additional evidence in a“judge”task.The communicative stress factors:time,modality,participants/relationships,importance of the task,participant
31、s control over the task.,The Post-Task Phase,Three major pedagogical goals:-提供再做任务的机会（to provide an opportunity for a repeat performance of the task）-反思任务是怎样完成的（to encourage reflection on how the task was performed）-关注语言的形式（to encourage attention to form）,Post-task activities,Post 1performance:the k
32、nowledge while the task is being done may have to be re-done publicly this leads to learners attention to the goals of restructuring and accuracy.analysis:the concern with syntax and analysis is infiltrated into the task work without the heavy-handedness of the teacher intervention and error correct
33、ion.,Repeat performance,Carry out second performance publicly（全班，当众）Complexity increases 复杂度提高了Express more clearly 表达更清楚了Become more fluent 语言更流利了,Post-task activities,Post 2examine task sequences,task progression,and how sets of tasks relate to one another:1)to repeat tasks so learners are more ef
34、fective with the analysis and synthesis2)parallel tasks:tasks are similar but with new elements so to engage the learner interest.2task families:groups of tasks resemble one another and have similar language or cognitive demands(Candlin,1987)so learners are clearer of the goals of such task groups a
35、nd teachers and learners share views about task requirements.,The post-task phase的四种主要活动,Reviewing of learner errors反思错误Consciousness-raising tasks语法意识Production-practice activities操练活动Noticing activities 注意语言的准确,Reviewing of learner errors,Teacher moves from group to group to listen and note down t
36、he errorsAddress these errors with the whole class-can be written on the board-students can be invited to correct it-listen again and edit their own performance-teacher comments on,Consciousness-raising tasks,There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused attention 就某一语法现象单
37、独讲解The learners are provided with data that illustrate the targeted feature or an explicit rule describing or explaining the feature 给例子说明语法用法或对语法详细描述The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted features 通过思考理解语法用法Learners may be optionally required to verbaliz
38、e a rule describing the grammatical structure 可以是学生口头表达To direct students to attend explicitly to a specific form they used incorrectly or failed to use at all in the main task 补充不足,Production-practice activities,Repetition 重复活动Substitution 替换练习Gapped sentences 填空练习Jumbled sentences 打乱的句子Transformat
39、ion drills 变换句型Dialogues 对话,Noticing activities,Focusing on linguistic formDictation Editing Writing and teacher comments,Reflecting on the task,Present a report on how they did the task and what they decided or discovered oral or written Summary the outcome of the taskReflect or evaluate of their o
40、wn performance(fluency,complicity or accuracy)Metacognitive strategies 元认知策略(planning,monitoring and evaluating),在Post-task activity环节中，安排的语言输出活动，应该有以下几个特点：1、贴近生活的语言使用环境(life-like situations)；2、交谈的双方之间有信息差(information gap)；3、解决实际问题(problem solving)；4、发挥学生的自主性(active)或创造性(creative)。,（一）“任务型学习模式”的框架,T
41、ask Circle,Pre-task preparation,While-task procedure,Post-task activity,Mechanical practice,Meaningful practice,The Foods I Eat(for students),Task 1:Having a picnicSituation:Some children are going to have a picnic.What food are they going to have?Can you give them some ideas?What food do you usuall
42、y have?Name some of your favourite ones.Subtask1:What food do they want for the picnic?Instruction:Now the children are deciding what they want.Look at the picture carefully and find out the answer by filling in the blanks.Subtask2:buying food at the food shopInstructions:Lily and Mary are at the su
43、permarket.They are buying food for the picnic.Please listen to their conversation carefully.Fill in the chart.Subtask3:eating at the picnicInstructions:Now the children are at the picnic.They have lots of food.Read the conversation between Coco and Sam.Complete the one between Helen and Tim.,The Foo
44、ds I Eat(for teachers),Task 1.Having a picnicAims of the task:1.to identify kinds of foods2.to express likes or dislikes3.to understand the communicative language at the food shop,Subtask2:buying food at the food shop,Task requirements:Communicative language at a shop.Listening skillGeneral:To ask a
45、nd answer questions about buying and selling at shopsSpecific:To assess students ability to:-make a conversation at a shop.-get information from a conversation.-sum up the main idea of the conversation.-write money in numbers.,WHOS WHO IN THE FAMILY,Family members,BE,Who/whose Structure/Vocabulary:F
46、amily members,BE,Who/whose Functions:Talking about families,Materials:(1)Cards with description of a new family(1per student)(2)Find Someone Who.Sheet(3)Model Paragraph,PRE ACTIVITY,Skills:Speaking and listening Organization:Whole class Procedures:Class asks teacher about his/her family(real)or imag
47、inary.,ACTIVITY,Skills:Speaking,listening,writing.Organization:Mixer Procedures:(l)Give out cards(one per student):explain that this is their new family.(2)Explain any vocabulary or pronunciation problems.(3)Give out Find Who.?”sheet and explain how it works.Students will answer with information fro
48、m their new families.(4)Done as a mixer.The first student to fill out the sheet correctly wins.,POST ACTIVITY,Skills:Writing,(speaking,listening)Organization:Individual/pairs.Procedures:(1)Go over model paragraph.(2)Individually,students write similar paragraphs about their new families.(3)Then,put
49、students into pairs and they correct each others paragraphs.(The paragraphs can later be collected and corrected by the teacher.),Father:Hugh,taxi river,35 Mother:Marilyn,actress,30 You:student,10 Father:Edward,politician,35Mother:Mildred,deceased You:university student,20 Father:John,retired,99*Mot
50、her:Henrietta,retired,98 You:retired,75,FIND SOMEONE WHOSE.mother is deceased.mother is an actress.father is a taxi driver.father is a taxi driver.FIND SOMEONE WHO-is a student.is retired.is 20.,Model Paragraph,My Family My name Is Olivia.Im 10 and Im a student.My fathers name is Joseph.Hes a scient
