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1、2.3 lexical deviation 词汇变异,Lexical deviation in literature refers almost exclusively to neologisms or the coinage of new words.(1)新造词（neologism）(2)临时造词（nonce formation),In coining new words,it may be said that the literary writer is not so much breaking rules of word-formation as extending the rules
2、.In the coinage of new words,the literary writer usually extends three major rules of word-formation:affixation,compounding and conversion.,2.3.1 Affixation Affixation is the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item which already exists in the language.The following lines contain some typical examp
3、les of words coined by extension of this rule:,(1)There was a balconyful of gentlemen.(Chesterton)(2)We left the town refreshed and rehatted.(Fotherhill),后缀-ful 经常与bowl,basket,spoon 等表示容器的名词连用,表示“满.的”,此处与balcony 连用,生动形象地描绘出“阳台好像容器一样挤满了人”这样一幅画面。英语是形合型语言,对词汇的形态变化有严格的要求,为了使表达更形象生动,直接在名词后添加形容词词尾,使描述更具物象
4、感,也起到了填补词汇缺项的作用。,（3）It is easier to marry than unmarry.,这一句中的unmarry 是根据marry创造出来的，意思是divorce,但作者没有用divorce,却用了临时词unmarry,这不仅与marry 押韵，而且生的地说明了在作者所处的时代离婚是一件非常困难的事，修辞效果不言而喻。,E.g.“the widow-making unchilding unfathering deeps”(英国十九世纪诗人霍普金斯描写大海的诗)widow-making：大海吞噬了妻子的丈夫；unchilding：夺去了老人们的孩子；unfathering
5、：葬送了孩子们的父亲,E.g(4)The orangemostest drink in the world.,orange 一词后面连续用了两个最高级词缀most 和est,给人以深刻的印象。广告商为了体现广告语言的表意功能,使用词汇变异手段来实现广告的注意、兴趣和记忆的语用目的。,例：满心“婆理”而满口“公理“的绅士们的名言暂且置之不论不议之列-鲁迅,2.3.2 CompoundingCompounding is the combination of two or more items to make a single compound one.Consider the following
6、examples:,(1)They were else-minded then,altogether,the men.(G.M.Hopkins),(2)They lowed about her whom he knew,dewsilky cattle.(James Joyce:Ulysses),这是小说尤利西斯中描写一群奶牛的语句。在这里，乔伊斯巧妙地将dew和 silky组合在一起，形成了一个新奇而又自然的复合词 dewsilky,简洁生动地为读者传达了“露水”和“丝绸般光亮”这两个意象,形象地描绘出清晨奶牛身有耳目一新的感觉。,（3）the wagon beginning to fall
7、into its slow and mileconsuming clatter.-William Faulner,(4)To lighten the burden of womankind.,（5）They my-loved and my-deared each other.-William Thackeray,作者创造了my-loved，my-deared两个临时用的复合动词，句子即变得妙趣横生。,2.3.3 Conversion Conversion,which is often described as zero affixation,is the adaptation of an it
8、em to a new grammatical function without changing its form.,(1)Dont be such a harsh parent,father!Dont father me!(H.G.Wells),E.g(2)My mother and father toted the luggage from car to cottage,exclaiming over how well the place had wintered,no broken windows winter 通常作名词使用,此处则将它们用作动词,winter 意为“经受了冬天的考验
9、”。,(3)The coffee-er coffee.此广告把名词coffee当形容词用，别出心裁地使之有了比较级形式“coffee-er”，用以表达“咖啡千杯好，此品味更浓”的意思。,(4)A world of made is not a world of born.创造的世界并非是原生的世界。（动词转名词）卡明斯这句诗意在把物化的文明世界与原始的世界进行对比，表达了他对文明世界的一些创造物如摧残人性的机器的真实感觉。,(5)Fainter,dimmer,stiller,each moment,now night.愈近黄昏，暗越暗，静越静，每刻每分，已入夜境。“night”这儿用作动词使这首
10、小诗意蕴深远，在读者面前展现了一幅夜暮时分，万籁寂静，万物沉寂的恬淡的画面。,如在雅虎网站的一则广告语“Do you Yahoo?”“Yahoo”一词就被前景化或凸显(foregrounded),因为此词的词性发生了偏离。,再如一则宣传食用油的广告:“馋在眼里,香在心里”用了非常规的词语搭配,从而勾起了人的无限联想和欲望。,其他方法,谐音造词法英语中有时利用一些发音相同或相近的字母或字母组合互相替代,来临时创造一些词语,用以表达原词所无法表达的含义。比如,一则低价销售冬装的广告为:GoodBuy Winter!100%Cotton Knit wear 49.95,E.g.Britainnia
11、Rues the Waves 这是一篇文章的标题,诙谐模仿英国海军进行曲中歌词Britannia Rules the Waves 所产生的变异效果,将“rule”调换成“rue”,意思从“统领”转为“懊悔、叹息”。这样的标题有吸引力,耐人寻味。,另一方面，如果新造的词汇在形式上背离常规，那么往往能产生奇特的艺术效果，可令读者体会到一种全新的、陌生的、甚至是扭曲的美。例:It soared,a bird,it held its flight,a swift pure cryof the high vast irradiation every where all soaring all aroun
12、d about the all,the endlessnessnessnessness(James Joyce:Ulysses),小说中布鲁姆在一家酒吧里想入非非，而他想象中的情人玛莎正在众人面前展现她那美妙的歌声。显然，“endlessnessnessness”一词是作者利用英语后缀的习惯新造的词。“ness”的四次重复似乎能产生一种听觉上的艺术效果，让读者也感受到歌声的美妙悠扬，余音缭绕，回味无穷。同时，读者似乎也能切身体会到布鲁姆那虚无缥缈的精神世界以及他在优美歌声中浮想联翩的心理状态。,分析：,E.g.Dont dear me.,E.g.-You have a lovely wife.
13、-She is a workholic.,这几种词汇变异都超越了正常语言的词汇，这些词汇使诗人的想象得以自由发挥，纵横自如，不受现有词汇的束缚和限制。变异只是一种手段，不是目的。在任何变异的背后，总是隐藏着作者或说话人的意图。了解语言使用中的变异，对于我们进行文体分析会起到很大的帮助作用,也在不知不觉中提高了文学鉴赏能力。,2.4 Syntactic Deviation,Syntactic deviation refers to departures from normal(surface)grammar.These include a number of features such as u
14、nusual clause themes,unusual phrase structures.,2.4.1 Unusual Clause Theme The initial unit of a clause may be called its theme.Apart from the last stressed element of the clause structure which most naturally bears the information focus,the theme is the most important part of a clause from the poin
15、t of view of its presentation of a message in sequence.The theme may be characterized as the communicative departure for the rest of the clause.In English,the expected or“unmarked”theme（无标记主位）of a main clause is:,1.Subject of an indicative clause:E.g.(She)got a new dress.2.Auxiliary in a yes-no ques
16、tion:E.g(Did)she get a new dress?,3.Wh-element in a wh-question:e.g.(Which)dress did she get?4.Main verb in an imperative clause:e.g(Get)a new dress for her.,However,the literary writer can go beyond this and may place any of the rest of clause elements in the thematic position in order to achieve c
17、ertain literary effect.The theme thus produced is unusual and is therefore called a marked theme.（有标记主位）,因此，在句法上，较为常见的变异（或偏离）是违反常规的句子结构。,e.g(1)My opinion of the coal trade on that river is,that it may require talent,but it certainly requires capital.Talent Mr.Micawber has,capital Mr.Micawber has not
18、.(Dickens,David Copperfield)此句为强调宾语talent和capital,并用排比的方法将其自然地进行对比,表达了Mr.Micawber徒有才华却缺乏资金的遗憾。,Adverbials in the initial position：E.g.(2)Alone she cuts and binds the grain,And sings a melancholy strain;,Notes:The use of alone first makes it possible for the line to rhyme with the next one,and bestow
19、 a musical quality to the poem.Secondly,this fronting of the adjunct makes the element highly noticeable and reinforce the theme of the poem.,2.4.2 Deviant Phrase Structure To employ phrases that are structurally deviant for the purpose of certain communicative effects.,e.g.Do not Go Gentle into tha
20、t Good Night(Do not Go Gentle into that Good Night)(Dylan Thomas,“Do Not Go Gentle into That Night”),Good night here means death Gentle here means one should not accept death without resistance.Such deviant use of gentle attracts much attention to the line itself and makes the reader pause to think
21、seriously about the meaning of the line and meaning of death.,分析：,语序混乱Me up at does out of the floorquietly Stare a poisoned mousestill who alive is asking Whathave i done that You wouldnt have(e.e.cummings,“Me up at Does”),This is a short poem containing only 8 lines and 26 words and is composed ex
22、clusively of everyday words and expressions.Nevertheless,it is not easy to understand at a first reading.The difficulty in understanding the poem is caused by the extremity in syntactic deviation in the first part of the poem and by the graphological deviation as is manifest in the capitalization of
23、 the first letter of certain words and the de-capitalization of the pronoun i.,There is a lot to be said about the syntactic deviation here but for the moment let us simply rearrange the order of some words and lines so as to give some idea of what the poem is about,realizing though that any alterat
24、ion in syntax would mean some change in meaning.,a poisoned mouse who still alive does Stare quietly out of the floor up at Me is asking what have i done that You wouldnt have,From this rearrangement,we may see that Me in the poem is a human being and the addresser of the poem from whose point of vi
25、ew this scene is presented.It is perhaps this Me that has poisoned the mouse.We may also notice that What have i done that You wouldnt have is in fact a case of free direct speech.For clarity,let us transform it into direct speech by putting it into a pair of quotation marks.is asking What have i do
26、ne that You wouldnt have,It is clear then that i refers to the poisoned mouse and You the human being-Me.Now we have come to the point.According to the convention of verse composition,the first letter of each line should be capitalized.,However,cummings here breaches the convention by only capitaliz
27、ing the first letter of the opening line and that of the closing line so that the two words Me and You stand out and become stylistically prominent.Me and You are also in strong contrast with i,Thus,they have acquired great significance in this poem.,How might we interpret the capitalization and de-
28、capitalization of the pronouns in the poem?A possible interpretation for capitalizing the first letter of Me is that the poet may intend to have the reader see that the addresser considers himself to be superior to the mouse.,However,the addresser does not seem to be so calm and sober as the poisone
29、d mouse,for the mouse speaks much more grammatically than he does.This then shows satirically the fact that those who appear to be important and powerful and are in a position to manipulate others destinies may in fact be very weak inwardly.In other words,when they do evil against their own conscien
30、ce,they cannot help revealing their uneasy feelings.,Since i is the self-address of the mouse,the decapitalization may demonstrate that the mouse wishes to show its humbleness.The capitalization of You on the other hand manifests that the mouse pays much respect to the addresser(the human being-Me),
31、at least outwardly.,分析（1）,Bus StopAnonymousI ran up the doorOpen the stairs,Said my pajamasAnd put on my prayers,Turn off my bedTumble into the light,And all becauseYou kissed me good night,分析（2）,E.g.I see in the street where strong men are digging bread.-(e.e.cummings),2.2.5 Semantic Deviation Sema
32、ntic deviation belongs to deep-structure deviation,which may be defined as linguistic effects involving something odd in the cognitive meaning of a certain linguistic unit,e.g.,a word or phrase(Leech,1969:131).,E.g.The child is the father of the man,E.g.More haste,less speed.(欲速则不达),Figures of speec
33、h usually used in semantic deviation are:Oxymoron,Paradox,Irony.,(1)Oxymoron 矛盾修辞法 Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms are combined to produce an epigrammatic effect.所谓矛盾修辞法是指将语义截然相反对立的词语放在一起使用，来揭示某一项事物矛盾性质的一种修辞手法。换言之，它使用两种不相协调，甚至截然相反的特征来形容一项事物，以增强语言感染力。,E.g.He pas
34、sed an existence of competitive tranquility.,E.g.Parting is such a sweet sorrow.,E.g.Can enemies become mortal friends?,E.g.He sat there and watched them,so changelessly changing,so bright and dark,so grave and gay.,E.g.(New York)has the poorest millionaires,the littlest great men,the haughtiest beg
35、gars,the plainest beauties,the lowest skyscrapers,the dolefulest pleasures of any town I ever saw.(O.Henry)这座城市（指纽约）里有心里最空虚的百万富翁，人格最渺小的伟人，最目空一切的草包，最使人瞧不上眼的美女，最卑鄙龌龊的摩天大楼，和最令人悲哀的娱乐。比我所见到过的任何城市都有过之而无不及。,E.g.a wise fool idiotic wisdom cruel kindness victorious defeat crowded solitude,bitterly happy tear
36、ful joy proud humility loving hate,（2）Paradox 隽语Paradox is a Greek word meaning contrary to expectation,apparently absurd or a self-contradictory statement.In rhetoric,paradox is a statement that appears to be logically contradictory,apparently absurd or self-contradictory and yet may be true.Its pu
37、rpose is to provoke fresh thought.,E.g Failure is the mother of success.The more you give,the more you have.多施多得,E.g This suspense is terrible.I hope it will last.,E.g Cheapest is the dearest.,E.g Everybodys business is nobodys business.,E.g.Nurse:His name is Romeo,and a Montague,The only son of you
38、r great enemy.Juliet:My only love sprung from my only hateToo early seen unknown,and known too late!Prodigious birth of love it is to me,That I must love a loathed enemy.（Shakespeare）,乳媪：他的名字叫罗密欧，是蒙太古家里的人，咱们仇家的独子。朱丽叶：我钟情所致的是我唯一的世仇，早已相见不曾相知，而今相知已太迟，涌泉的爱浪喷自胸膛，爱之所至是不共戴天的世敌。,（3）Irony 反语Irony is the expr
39、ession of actual intent in words that carry the opposite meaning.It is an effective literary device.Most forms of irony involve the perception or awareness of discrepancy or incongruity between words and their meaning,or between actions and their results,or between appearance and reality.反语是一种用相反的话来
40、表达自己意思的修辞格。,E.g.This hardworking boy seldom reads more than an hour per week.,E.g.She wants him to buy one of those modest cars,like a Cadillac or a Benz.,E.g.It was one of those glorious days-overcast skies,a cutting wind and sub-zero temperature.,分析：,为了创造生动活泼的语言风格,产生诙谐幽默的语言特点,在交际中,人们常通过谐音词的妙用,来达到交
41、际目的。E.g.(1)请多保重我不想保重,我要减肥。齐仰之:政治是与我是绝缘的,我也决不会溶解在政治里。-话剧陈毅市长,该例句用的是双关语义变异,第一个“保重”与第二个“保重”显然不是同一概念,对话由此产生出忍俊不禁的幽默效果例中的“绝缘”和“溶解”本属于科技术语,作为化学家的齐仰之,三句话不离本行,在会话中使用了语域变异,这说明他在专业领域是个专家,而在政治方面却知之甚少,他对待政治就象对待自然科学一样,严肃而认真。,E.g(2)想知道亲嘴的味道吗我说的是“清嘴”含片 你现在知道“清嘴”的味道了吧!这则广告巧妙地运用“亲嘴”和“清嘴”的语音变异,来展现商品的特点,创造了“先声夺人”的艺术效果,给观众留下了深刻而难忘的印象。,e.g.(3)读广州日报,日日有好报”,利用了双关的语义变异,“好报”既是好报纸,又是报应”。不仅具有审美情趣,而且满足了人们求吉利的心理。,E.g.(4)白丽美容香皂的奥秘“今年二十,明年十八。”这则广告也成功地利用了语义变异手法,乍一听觉着有悖常理,不合逻辑,但细细品味,却让人领略到了字的妙处。广告制作者以此创造出更加精美的广告话语,标新立异,吸引顾客,刺激和提升观众或读者的消费理念及消费欲望。,
