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1、新课程理念下的中学英语阅读教学,人民教育出版社中学英语室 张献臣,关键词：英语，语篇，阅读，效率一、目前英语阅读教学中的主要问题二、语篇模式和语篇分析三、基于语篇理论的阅读活动设计,一、目前中学英语阅读教学中的几个问题,请思考：目前中学英语阅读教学中还存在什么问题？,问题1:过分注重词汇和句子层面的教学，忽视语篇语义教学。认为阅读教学的主要目的是学习语言知识，因此讲解词汇，分析结构，翻译句子是主要的教学方法。将课文分解得支离破碎，严重忽视了语义的整体理解。学习结果：只见树木，不见森林。教师教得很辛苦，学生学得很痛苦穿新鞋，走老路,问题2:对课文处理过于粗放，严重忽视阅读效率强调课文内容理解，重
2、视快速阅读，只抓课文主旨大意，段落大意的理解，忽视对语言知识和语篇知识的输入与学习，过早地进行理解后的运用，比如讨论，辩论，角色扮演等。,这种教学模式：念一念生词读一读课文做一做练习对一对答案对课文的处理基本上都是快速阅读，目的是培养学生快速阅读的能力，检测性问题也都是表层理解，对语篇材料没有进行深度挖掘，造成课文资源浪费。,许多学生认为，读一篇文章，只要做对了后面的几道练习（多为多项选择和正误判断），就算完成了阅读理解任务。学生“用眼睛阅读”，而不是“用大脑阅读”。思维能力培养不够是当前英语阅读教学中的严重问题。,问题3:教学方法落后，把阅读作为被动输入信息的行为，以教师为中心，以教师讲解代
3、替学生的阅读行为与思考，严重忽视学生的阅读过程和思维能力培养。(阅读课上没有读或很少读),问题4:受考试的影响严重，在阅读教学过程中，教师的作用不是教学生阅读，而是测试学生的阅读结果。教师不是一个teacher,而是一个tester。,问题5:阅读后的练习大多为表层信息的检测，而且练习形式比较单一，多为判断正误,单项选择,回答问题等,阅读练习的深度不够,不利于培养学生的思维能力(thinking ability)。,优化阅读教学深化阅读教学,阅读教学的目的Read to learn？Learn to read？,什么是阅读教学？,阅读教学实际上就是“教学生阅读”（teach students
4、to read）。阅读教学是在教师指导下的学生自主的阅读实践活动。学生在阅读活动中具有自主性、独立性、教师则起引导、点拨、指导、以及帮助解决阅读困难的作用，而不是教师用自己的语言知识讲解和对课文内容的分析来代替学生的阅读实践，不能用教师对文本信息的理解来代替学生对文本信息的理解。阅读教学是教师、学生、文本之间的对话过程。(阅读教学的目的是什么?),请思考：阅读教学的目的是什么？,阅读教学的目的：1Reading for information2Reading for developing reading skills3Reading for learning the language4Read
5、ing for pleasure5Reading for developing writing skills,micro-skills-reading ability阅读教学的最终目的：independent and efficient reader,请思考：独立而高效的阅读者应具有哪些阅读策略和技能？,主要阅读策略,1.Reading with a purpose2.Activate prior knowledge3.Adjust reading rate/rereading4.Ask questions:before,during&after reading5.Classify or ca
6、tegorize information,6.Compare and contrast ideas7.Distinguish facts from opinions8.Identify and analyze text structures9.Identify authors purpose:why did the author write the article?10.Identify authors viewpoint:what does the author think?,11Identify main ideas and supporting details12Make inferen
7、ce and draw conclusion13Make generalization14Make and refine predictions15Paraphrase/retell16Recognize cause and effect relationship,17Sequencing events18Summarizing information19Use context clues to guess unfamiliar language items20Visualize images from text把课文内容形成语义图像,二、英语语篇模式与语篇分析,阅读整体教学的核心是语篇教学。
8、结构语法structural grammar词汇、短语、句子结构语篇语法 discourse grammar 文章体裁，衔接手段，逻辑连贯语篇分析不仅对阅读理解有较大的促进作用，尤其对写作更有促进作用。这是阅读教学与写作教学有机结合的核心部分。,语篇分析(discourse analysis)是整体阅读教学的核心，也是阅读与写作教学整合的根本基础，因此阅读整体教学应首先从语篇分析入手。,什么是语篇(discourse/text)？语篇是指一一段有意义、传达一个完整信息、逻辑连贯、语言衔接、具有一定目的和功能的语言单位或交际事件。它可以是对话，也可以是独白，包括书面语，也包括口语。篇章的大小不一
9、，它可以是一个交通标志、一则广告，一段诗歌、一篇文章，也可以是一部小说。总之，它是超越句子层面的语义单位。,语篇是一种交际活动(communicative occurrence),应具有七项标准：衔接性、连贯性、意图性、完整性、语境性、信息性和互动性。其中衔接性和连贯性是语篇最基本的特征。因此，一篇文章的整体性不仅表现在结构层次（词，句，段）等方面之间的联系，还表现在意义层次的联系，也就是作者所要表达的意图和写作的目的。,什么是语篇分析（discourse analysis/text analysis)？狭义的理解：从整体理解语篇内容入手，分析句子与句子之间，段落与段落之间的衔接方式和逻辑思维
10、的连贯方式，它不同于传统的句子结构分析，它重视语言所表达的思想内容和艺术特色，使读者具有统览全篇的能力，掌握文本的主题，同时掌握句子在表达篇章整体意义上所起的作用。,1语篇的宏观分析分析语篇的体裁结构及其表现特征。英语的文体特征是受英语的思维模式而形成的。因此，要了解英语的文体特征，我们必须要了解西方人与东方人在思维模式上的不同。,中西方不同的思维模式:西方的思维模式基本上是“直线型”(linear)，先概括，后细节；先抽象，后具体；先综合，后分析。首先直接切入主题，然后逐渐分点展开分析阐述，由主题句直接向纵深拓展。,主要分为四种形式：1一般-特殊型(general particular pa
11、ttern)2问题解决型(problem-solution pattern)3比较匹配型(Matching pattern)4 主张-反主张型(claim-counterclaim pattern),中国的思维模式主要是“螺旋型”(spiral),往往“迂回式”接近主题，而不是直接切入主题，展开讨论。中医和西医反映了两种不同的哲学思想。,思维模式1：一般-特殊型（general particular pattern）这种思维模式在英语中是最常见，最具代表性的，它充分体现了西方人的线性思维模式。它有两种表现形式：,1）概括-举例式(generalization example)段首句往往是一个概
12、括句，可以表达某种观点，看法，结论和定义，下文的例证部分是对段首句的内容进行展开、充实，来强化或论证段首句的内容。,Large cars cause their owners several problems.First,they cost a lot of money.They are also more expensive to run,using twice as much as fuel as small cars and producing higher repair bills.Moreover,they are more difficult to park,needing add
13、itional space.,2)整体细节（Previewdetail)段首句往往是概括主体思想，然后再引出具体细节。,The working conditions were poor.The tables where the workers sat were very high and uncomfortable.Except for a half hour at lunchtime,there were no breaks in the day to relieve the boring work.There was no music.The walls of the workrooms
14、were a dull gray color.I was amazed that the workers hadnt gone on strike.,思维模式2：问题解决型(problem-solution pattern)这种思维模式的特点是先说明情况，然后引出问题，分析问题，最后解决解决问题。这种模式多见于叙事性文体和说明文。,These days many soccer experts are asking how referees can do a better job.With so much money involved in the winning and losing of g
15、ames,some soccer experts are speaking openly of getting rid of some bad referees because they make bad decisions during the game because they sometimes cannot see a foul on the field of play,One solution is to use video replays for controversial decisions.Another solution would be to hire profession
16、al referees.提出问题，分析问题，解决问题,思维模式3：比较匹配型（Matching pattern）英语中常用这种模式比较两种事物的相同点或不同点。,Just like house cats,wild cats like to bask in the sunshine.Have you ever visited the zoo and seen a lion outside sunning itself on a rock?The warm sunshine lulls cats to sleep.In the wild,cats often sleep when the sun
17、is high in the sky.House cats get drowsy in the sun.They like to sleep on a rug in front of a big window.(相同比较),E-mail is mail that you send through the Internet.Mail that you send through the postal services is called snail mail because it is slow like a snail.At one time only snail mail was availa
18、ble.People wrote letters to their friends,put stamps on the letters,and mailed them.It could take several days for friends and family to get the letters.Now we can instantly keep in touch with friends all over the world through e-mail.Communicating with friends has never been quicker.（差异比较）,思维模式4：主张
19、-反主张型(claim-counterclaim pattern)作者首先提出一种普遍认可或某些人认可的主张或观点，然后进行澄清，同时说明自己的主张或观点，或提出反主张或真实情况，以此来说明那种普遍认可或某些人认可的主张或观点是错误的。（例子略）,2语篇的微观分析衔接(cohesion)连贯(coherence),语篇必须具有衔接和连贯的特征。语篇内句与句之间在概念上有联系，在排列上符合逻辑。衔接是语篇的有形网络，它通过词汇和语法手段让语句文理通顺。文章通过一定的衔接手段，将句与句，段与段有机地组合起来，构成一个完整的语义整体。衔接可以通过文章的语篇标记(discourse markers)来
20、观察。,连贯是指句与句之间在意义上具有合乎逻辑的有机联系，语义表述思路清晰,意义关系首尾贯通，使交际对方容易得到要领。连贯既包括语篇结构的衔接，也包括语篇语义的连续发展。连贯是语篇的无形网络。连贯在表面上是看不见的，要靠读者的逻辑推理来理解。,语篇之所以成为语篇不在于它的语法性，而在于它的语义关联性。如果一段文章，即使每个句子都是符合语法规则的，但每句话从意思上互不关联，那么它就够不成语篇。,Joy kept two mice in a cage.She is one of the top students in her school.She loves animals,so she keep
21、s cats,dogs,mice and even snakes.However,she is a nice and brave girl.,Joy kept two white mice in a cage.One day she forgot to lock the cage door after feeding her mice.Each day she fed her mice and gave them fresh water.The mice soon found the open door and ran off.什么问题？,符合从总体到细节的思维模式，从主题句到each day
22、，然后再到one day，最后到结果ran off ran off 的原因是forgot to lock the cage door,Joy kept two white mice in a cage.Each day she fed her mice and gave them fresh water.One day she forgot to lock the cage door after feeding her mice.The mice soon found the open door and ran off.,衔接是语义联系在语言上的表现形式。语篇衔接形式包括语法衔接、词汇衔接和逻
23、辑连接。一、语法衔接语法衔接包括照应，替代和省略三种形式：,1 照应（Reference）照应是指用人称代词或指示代词等语法手段来表示一种语义关系，也就是用代词代替前文提到的人或事，前后形成照应关系，便于阅读。这是一种比较常见的衔接方式。照应分为人称照应和指示照应。,人称照应(Personal reference)例：Ill live in Shanghai,because I went to Shanghai last year and fell in love with it.例：I cant have any pets now because my mother hates them.例
24、：Life for Cathy Taylors three children is very busy.Their school days are busy enough.,指示照应(Demonstrative reference)The fight all started when she asked me if she could copy my homework.I asked her why she wanted to do that,and she said that she had forgotten to do hers.,If you are famous,people wil
25、l watch you all the time and follow you everywhere.This could make your life difficult.,2替代(Substitution)替代是指说话者或作者为了避免重复而用替代形式来取代上文中的某一部分。这是一种重要语言表达手段，常用one,ones,the same等。替代分为：名词性替代、动词性替代和分句替代。,）名词性替代(nominal substitution)I dont like this red skirt.Please show me a yellow one.He did me lots of kin
26、dness.Ill do the same for him someday.,2)动词性替代(verbal substitution)Have you written an email to your family?Yes,I did it yesterday.Dont wear jeans to the party.If you do,they wont let you in.,3)分句性替代(clausal substitution)A：Has Mary passed the math exam?B：Well,I think so.A：Look at the clouds.It looks
27、 like rain.B：I am afraid so.,3省略(ellipsis)省略是指为了避免重复，突出主要信息，对语言结构中的某个成分省去不提。从某种程度上讲，省略结构在句法上是不完整的，但这并不意味着省略结构是不可理解的，因为受话者可以从上下文中找到被省略的成分。正是由于省略结构与被省略成分之间的这种预设关系使句子或语篇前后衔接。,1)名词性省略A:Have some soup,please.B:Sorry,there isnt any.,2)动词性省略One boy is a boy,two boys half a boy,three boys no boy,The Chinese
28、 use two brush strokes to write the word crisis.One brush stroke stands for danger,the other for opportunity.In crisis,be aware of the danger;but recognize the opportunity.危机=危险+机遇,二、词汇衔接(lexical cohesion)词汇衔接是指：语篇中的一些词在上下文中重复出现或由其他词汇替代的现象。通过词汇的重复，同义，反义，上下义，互补等关系来使语篇语义连贯。词汇复现分为四种：1原词复现，2同义词，近义词复现，3上
29、下义词复现，4反义词复现。,1I dont like dogs.Actually I hate dogs.（原词复现）2My brother Tim is really good at sports.He plays football,basketball and baseball as well.（上下义复现）3Tom is a smart boy.He always has a lot of clever ideas about how to make money for his class.（同义词复现）,4.A:On my next day off,I dont want to go
30、for a drive.That sounds really boring.B:Oh,really?But I think that sounds fun.（反义词复现）,三、逻辑连接(conjunction)逻辑连接是指表示两个或更多句子之间的某种逻辑手段，并指出句子是在什么意义上互相连接起来的。逻辑连接可分以下10类:请看以下逻辑衔接的功能及其语篇标记(discourse markers)。,1列举(enumerative)介绍事情的先后顺序或事情发生的时间顺序。first(ly),second(ly),third(ly),next,then,finally,for one thing,f
31、or another thing,eventually,in the end,to conclude2增补(additive)and,again,then again,also,moreover,furthermore,in addition,above all,what is more,equally,similarly,likewise,in the same way,3总结(summative)so,so far,altogether,overall,then,thus,therefore,in short,to sum up,to conclude,to summarize4结果(re
32、sultative)so,as a result,consequently,hence,therefore,thus,in consequence5解释(explicative)namely,in other words,that is to say,better,rather,by(this)we mean,6举例(illustrative)for example,for instance7 替代(replacive)alternatively,or again,or rather,but then,on the other hand8 对照(antithetic)instead,then,
33、on the contrary,by contrast,on the other hand,9 让步(concessive)anyway,anyhow,however,nevertheless,still,though,in spite of,all the same10原因(causal)because,so,for,for this reason,thats why,I want to be a reporter for a fashion magazine.So how am I going to do it?First,Im going tofind a part-time job f
34、or a year or two and savesome money.Then Im going to be a student at an art school in Paris.And Im going to study French at the same time.Next,Im going to hold art exhibitions because I want to be rich and famous.Im going to buy a big house with the money and Im going to travelall over the world.Fin
35、ally,Im going to retire somewhere quiet and beautiful.,Etiquette is not the same in every culture or in every situation.For example,standing very close to the person you are talking with is quite common in some Asian countries.However,if you do this in Europe,some people might feel uncomfortable.(举例
36、，让步和转折),Although rules of etiquette can often be different,some rules are the same almost everywhere in the world!For example,dropping litter is almost never allowed.If you see someone you know doing this,you can ask them,“Would you mind picking it up?”,衔接与连贯的关系关于连贯，许多语言学家作过描述，Nunan(1993)认为连贯是篇章被感觉到
37、是一个整体而不是一串不相关语句的程度。McCarthy(1993)认为连贯是对于篇章有一个意义整体，而非无意义堆砌的一种感觉。我国学者一般认为衔接是词汇和语法方面的手段，连贯是采用这些手段所得到的结果。“连贯与衔接的不同在于，连贯是主观的，衔接是客观的，衔接是篇章的一种特征，连贯是对篇章评价的一个方面，它只能有读者的评价来衡量。篇章的连贯是相对的而不是绝对的，篇章的连贯程度有一个较大的范围：从最连贯到最不连贯”。,语篇连贯评价的标准是语段必须有一个主题。语篇中的其他部分都是这个主题的一部分，而且是为这个主题服务的。连贯的语篇应具有单一性，即不能把几层相对独立的意思拥挤在一个语段里。同时，连贯应
38、具有完整性，即每一段要把一个相对独立的意思说完。,Animals perform many useful and entertaining jobs.Dogs are particularly valuable in guiding the blind,protecting property,finding lost people,and hunting animals.Horses are used in guiding herds,carrying men in lands where there are no roads,and helping farmers work their la
39、nd.Pigeons have long been used to carry messages.Wild animals from jungles,forests and seas are very popular performers in circus and moving pictures.People realize that,although animals may not have the same intelligence as human beings,they are smart enough to learn certain things.,语义完整而连贯的语篇主题句（概
40、括陈述）:Animals perform many useful and entertaining jobs.若干具体陈述（dogs,horses,pigeons,wild animals)没有使用语篇标记概括总结（前后呼应）:People realize that,although animals may not have the same intelligence as human beings,they are smart enough to learn certain things.,三、基于语篇理论的阅读活 动设计,阅读练习设计要有深度，能启发学生的思维，培养学生的推理，判断和概括能
41、力。除了常规的练习形式：1 单项选择2 判断正误3 回答问题4 填写表格我们应当加强以下几个方面的练习：,1.判断指代关系（Identifying refering pronouns)2.信息转换（Information transfer)3.区分事实和观点（Identifying facts and opinions)4.把握顺序(Sequencing)5.做结论(Drawing conclusions),6.找出不合逻辑的句子Detect the semantic noise.7.完型填句Fill in the blanks with sentences.8.拼图式阅读 Jigsaw re
42、ading9.判断与推理 Making inferences10.判断因果关系 Identifying cause and effect,1.判断指代关系 Identifying refering pronounsWhat does each of the cloured word refer to?,In some science fiction movies,people in the future have their own robots.These robots are just like humans.They help with the housework and do the
43、most unpleasant jobs.Some scientists believe that there will be such robots in the future.However,they agree it may take hundreds of years.,1)The word they in the third line refers to _.A.The movies.B.The robots.C.The people.D.The jobs.2)The word they in the 6th line refers to _.A.The robots.B.The p
44、eople.C.The scientists.C.The movies.,.In the future,there will be more robotseverywhere,and humans will have lesswork to do.New robots will have many different shapes.Some will look like humans,and others might look like snakes.After an earthquake,a snake robot could help look for people under build
45、ings.That may not seem possible now,space rockets and even electric toothbrushes seemed impossible ahundred years ago.We never know whatwill happen in the future!,2信息转换Information transfer Read the passage and draw lines to connect the countries with the ways of gift giving.,Gift giving is different
46、 in different countries.In Japan,people sometimes give special gifts.But they are not opened.Later,the same gift may be given away to someone else.Many people have enough things and dont want too many gifts themselves.In Canada,many people will not give big gifts to someone else.They will pay for a
47、park bench or a tree to help remember a person.In the USA,some people ask their families and friends to give money to charity rather than buy them gifts.In Sweden,doing something for someone is the best gift.People dont need to spend too much money.Instead,making a meal is enough.,In Japan:Some peop
48、le ask their families or friends to give money to charity instead of buying them gifts.In Canada:Doing something for someone is the best gift,for example,cooking a meal.In USA:People dont open the gift,and then they can give it to someone else.In Sweden:People pay for a park bench or a tree to help
49、remember a person.,3区分事实和观点Identifying facts and opinionsChoose the best answer according to the text.,Ostriches are interesting animals.They are the largest birds,but they cannot fly.The eathing habits of ostriches are strange as well.They will swallow almost anything.Keys,nails,wood,and even money
50、 have been found in their stomachs!Ostriches are often raised on farms for their beautiful feathers,called plumes.The plumes are used for decorating hats and dresses.,It is an opinion that _.A.ostriches are the largest bird.B.ostriches swallow almost anything.C.some farmers raise ostriches.D.ostrich
