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1、Two Principles of Relevance,Relevance Theory is based on two fundamental claims,one about cognition,the other about communication.(Sperber&Wilson,1995:260)Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance.Every act of ostensive communication communicates a presumption of its own op
2、timal relevance.,More fundamental and general,make the cognitive behavior of another human predictable enough to guide communication.,Grounded in the Cognitive Principle of Relevance,The Cognitive Principle of Relevance represents Sperber&Wilsons basic assumption about human cognition.Sperber&Wilson
3、 argue that offers of information automatically raise expectations of relevance.More precisely,any utterance or other act of overt communication creates a presumption that it will be relevant enough to be worth the audiences attention or,in Sperber&Wilsons terms,“optimally relevant”.This idea is exp
4、ressed in the communicative principle of relevance.,Relevance=Cognitive effects/Processing effort,Cognitive effects:result from an interaction of new and old informationProcessing effortNewly presented information may:bine with an existing assumption to yield contextual implications b.strengthen exi
5、sting assumptions c.contradict and eliminate existing assumptionsS 3.新信息与已有语境相矛盾因而放弃原有假设。老王和小赵出差回来了吗？,Cognitive principle,According to Sperber&Wilson,an assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextual effects in that context.按照 S&W 的理论,语境效果指新信息与旧信息相互作用产生的语境含意,即在交际中对已有认知语境的改
6、变,产生新的认知语境。一般说来,相关的信息会取得一定的交际效果,但她们将语境效果看作是“相关”的必要条件,即只有取得一定语境效果的信息才是相关的。What sort of things may be relevant?When is an input relevant?,What sort of things may be relevant?,Intuitively,relevance is a potential property not only of utterances and other observable phenomena,but also,of thoughts,memori
7、es and conclusions of inferences.According to Relevance Theory,utterances raise expectations of relevance not because speakers are expected to obey a Co-operative Principle and maxims or some other specifically communicative conventions,but because the search for relevance is a basic feature of huma
8、n cognition,which communicators may exploit.,When is an input relevant?,In Relevance-Theoretic terms,any external stimulus or internal representation that provides an input to cognitive processes may be relevant to an individual at some time.Intuitively,an input,which can be a sight,a sound,an utter
9、ance,a memory,is relevant to an individual when it connects with background information he has available to yield conclusions that matter to him:say,by answering a question he had in mind,improving his knowledge on a certain topic,settling a doubt,confirming a suspicion,or correcting a mistaken impr
10、ession.,In Relevance-Theoretic terms,an input is relevant to an individual when,and only when,its processing in a context of available assumptions yields a positive cognitive effect.,positive cognitive effect,Sperber&Wilson define it as a cognitive effect that contributes positively to the fulfillme
11、nt of cognitive functions or goals,to be more specific,its a kind of epistemic improvement.An increase in knowledge,Relevance is a matter of degreeComparative rather quantitativeRelevance Theory claims that what makes an input worth picking out from the mass of competing stimuli is not just that it
12、is relevant,but that it is more relevant than any alternative input available to people involved at that time.Relevance=Cognitive effect/Processing effort(equal to relevance of an input to an individual),Relevance of an input=(Positive)Cognitive effect Processing effort,A.The next plane to Bosten is
13、 at 5:30.B.The next plane to Bosten is sometime after 4:00.C.The next plane to Bosten leaves 7,500 seconds after 3:25.A-B cognitive effectA-C processing effortWhen similar amounts of effort are required,the effect factor is decisive in determining degrees of relevance,and when similar amounts of eff
14、ect are available,the effort factor is decisive.,Relevance of an input=(Positive)Cognitive effect Processing effort,Maximize the relevance of the inputs one processes is simply a matter of making the most efficient use of the available processing resources.Relevance Theory claims that humans do have
15、 an automatic tendency to maximize relevance,because of the way our cognitive systems have evolved.,As a result of constant selection pressure towards increasing efficiency,the human cognitive system has developed in such a way that our perceptual mechanisms tend automatically to pick out potentiall
16、y relevant stimuli,our memory retrieval mechanisms tend automatically to activate potentially relevant assumptions,and our inferential mechanisms tend spontaneously to process them in the most productive way.橘子,Communicative principle,The universal cognitive tendency to maximize relevance-to predict
17、 and manipulate the mental states of others.Knowing of human beings tendency to pick out the most relevant stimuli in their environment and process so as to maximize their relevance,a communicator may be able to produce a stimulus which is likely to attract someone elses attention,to prompt the retr
18、ieval of certain contextual assumptions and to point him towards an intended conclusion.（对彼此有一定的了解）,Peter may left his empty glass in his wife,Marys line of vision,intending her to notice and conclude that he might like another drink.Grice:not a case of inferential communication(affect the thoughts
19、of an audience+recognize speakers intention)It violates the Co-operative Principle and the Quantity Maxim,and has no implicature.Sperber&Wilson think it offers no informative intention,but has communicative intention.(it can be optimally relevance and have implicature),Ostensive-inferential communic
20、ation,The informative intention The intention to inform an audience of something.The communicative intention The intention to inform the audience of ones informative intention.Understanding is achieved when the communicative intention is fulfilled-that is,when the audience recognizes the informative
21、 intention.(Whether the informative intention itself is fulfilled depends on how much the audience trusts the communicator.There is a gap between understanding and believing.For understanding to be achieved,the informative intention must be recognized,but it does not have to be fulfilled.),Ostensive
22、inferential communication involves the use of an ostensive stimulus designed to attract an audiences attention and focus it on the communicators meaning.Relevance Theory claims that use of an ostensive stimulus may create precise and predictable expectations of relevance not raised by other stimuli.
23、Peter touch Marys arm,point to his empty glass,wave it,put down,stare meaningfully/say“my glass is empty”,The basis for Communicative Principle of Relevance,which applies specifically to ostensiveinferential communication:every ostensive stimulus communicates a presumption of its own optimal relevan
24、ce.According to Sperber&Wilson,though,the addressee of an act of ostensiveinferential communication is not always entitled to expect the maximally relevant information,since the speaker may be unwilling or unable to give it.He is,however,entitled to expect optimally relevant information.,Summary,Rel
25、evance Theory is an inferential approach to pragmatics.It is based on a definition of relevance and two principles of relevance:Cognitive Principle and Communicative Principle.Relevance Theory is a cognitive psychological theory.It treats utterance interpretation as a cognitive process.It has testab
26、le consequences:it can suggest experimental research,and it opens to confirmation,disconfirmation or finetuning in the light of experimental evidence.,Relevance Theory claims that humans do have an automatic tendency to maximize relevance because of the way humans cognitive systems have evolved.,Fro
27、m the speakers perspective,what counts as optimal relevance varies according to contextual resources of the speaker,the abilities,the aims,the interests(preferences)of the speaker and even his credit.It also varies with the way in which information is made accessible.（表达方式）While from the hearers perspective,what counts as optimal relevance varies according to the hearers processing abilities or intellectual awareness（潜力）(alertness).,两个问题：说话者不说话preference最大的努力和最大的认知效果在此基础上出现了最佳关联理论,
