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1、法律英语的奥秘与法律英语学习,1.法律英语的奥秘,1.1法律英语的词汇构成繁杂另类，其中蕴含的概念体系层层相扣、密切相关1.2法律英语典型句型的运用1.3法律英语语篇组织模式的专业性强,Lexical Features of Legal Language,0.Introduction1.Frequent use of common words with uncommon meanings2.Frequent use of Old and Middle English words once common,now rare3.Frequent use of Latin words and phra
2、ses4.Use of French words not in the general vocabulary5.Use of terms of art6.Use of argot7.Frequent use of formal words 8.Use of doublets and triplets and synonyms 9.Use of absolutes 10.Deliberate use of words and expressions with flexible meanings 11.Summary,Outline,WORDS LEGAL MEANINGaction law su
3、italien转让 transferavoid废止 cancelconsideration补偿/对价/约因 benefit to promisor or detriment to promiseecounterpart副本 duplicate of a documentcovenant契约 sealed contractdemise遗赠/出租to leasedemur抗辩/异议 to file a demurrerexecuted签名使契据生效 signed and deliveredhand签字 signatureinstrument文件 legal documentletters许可证 d
4、ocument authorizing one to actmaster employer,1.Use of common words with uncommon meaning,Words that mean one thing to non-lawyers may mean something completely different to lawyers.,WORDS LEGAL MEANING motion动议/提案 formal request for action by a courtparty person contracting or litigatingplead辩护/抗辩
5、file pleadingsPrayer诉讼请求 request of a complainantpresents本文件 this legal documentprovided限制性条款/附带条件word of introduction to a provisopurchase置得/购置to acquire realty by means other than descentsaid mentioned beforesave exceptserve送达 deliver legal papersspecialty盖印合同 sealed contracttenement保有物/住宅(一个人拥有的租
6、借给他人的财产)estate in land,2.Frequent use of Old and Middle English words once common,now rare,The general English of today leans heavily on Old and Middle English.But the language of the law retains numerous Old and Middle English words and meanings which have long since passed out of general usage.Exa
7、mple 2 Provided further that this Policy shall be subject to the Conditions herein contained and to any Memoranda endorsed hereon and such Conditions and Memoranda are to be taken as part of the Policy and the observance and performance by the Insured of the times and terms therein contained so far
8、as they relate to anything to be done by the Insured are of the essence of this contract and shall be conditions precedent to any liability on the part of the Insured under this Policy.,aforesaidforthwith立刻here words:hereafter,hereby,herein,hereinafter,hereinbefore,hereof,hereto,heretofore,hereunder
9、,herewith let(as in the phrase“without let or hindrance”无阻碍地,自由地,不受干涉地,通行无阻地,为所欲为地)said(used as an adjective)Such上述的,thence从那时起,thenceforth从那时起/其后there words:thereabout,thereafter,thereat,thereby,therefor,therefore,therein,thereon,thereto,theretofore,thereupon,therewithwhere words:whereas(meaning gi
10、ven the fact that),whereat,wherebywitness(used in the sense of testimony by signature,oath,etc.as“In witness whereof,I have set my hand,.”签字盖章,特此为证witnesseth鉴于(meaning to provide formal evidence of something,the Old English present indicative,third person singular verb form.),3.Frequent use of Latin
11、 words and phrases,Many of the English words are taken directly from Latin or indirectly through French.Some of the Latin found in the standard law dictionaries have become an accepted part of the English language.For example:affidavit书面证词/宣誓书alias别名,化名Alibi不在犯罪现场的证明/不在犯罪现场一种辩护形式bona fide善意/真诚的provi
12、soquorum法定人数habeas corpus人身保护令prima facieversus,But a large part of law Latin is not in active use:ex parte片面的ex post facto有追溯效力的地(an ex post facto law有追溯效力的法律)guardian ad litem专为某一诉讼指定in flagrante delicto在作案现场in locum parentis代替父母inter alia和其他的事物(=among other things)inter partes(made between two pa
13、rties;between/among parties)per stirpes(按家系继承，也指一种从被继承人那里接受遗产的方式=by roots/by(right of)representation;The term is commonly used in wills and trusts to describe the distribution when a beneficiary dies before the person whose estate is being divided.Example:I leave$100,000 to my daughter,Eleanor,and i
14、f she shall predecease me,to her children,per stirpes.)res ipsa loquitur(英美侵权法中的)事实自证 in pari materia(=Of like kind;relating to/upon/on the same matter/subject)同一事情in rem(=against a thing)律对物(指判决的对象是物或财产)诉讼地(的),4.Use of French words not in the general vocabulary,A vast section of the language of the
15、 law stems from French sources.The following is a list of some French words basic to the law vocabulary(even apart from the land law):actionagreementappealarrestarsonassaultattorneysbattery billclaimConditionconstablescontract,counselcountcourtcovenantcrimedamagedebtdeclarationdefendantDemand v.传讯出庭
16、/n.正式请求/合法要求descent继承devise遗赠easement在他人土地上的通行权(或类似的权力),evidenceexecutionfelonygoals(jails)grant财产让渡通guarantee担保物/抵押品guardianheirindictmentinfant未成年人judgesjudgmentjurorsjustice,larcenylien留置权marriagemisdemeanourmoneynoteobligationpardonpartiespartnerpaymentplaintiffpleadings诉状,pledge质押(a loan that r
17、equired a pledge of property)policepossessionprisonspropertypurchaseReprieve 缓刑(令)/缓期执行robberysentenceservantslandersuitTort民事侵权行为treasonTrespass侵害(用明显或隐蔽的武力或暴力对人、财产或他人的权利实施非法伤害，尤指错误地侵入另一个人的土地)verdict,There is still a substantial group of Old French and Anglo-Norman words which have not been taken i
18、nto the general vocabulary.This is law French.E.g.:,alien(in the sense of to transfer)chose in action无形动产(可依法获得但尚未实际占有)/权利财产/经诉讼取得但尚未实际占有的动产demurrer抗辩(一种表示反对的方法即：同意对方论据中的事实，但是否定对方基于这些事实的辩护)estoppel禁止翻供/禁止反言(Promissory Estoppel不得自食其言)estoppel in pais行为禁反言 esquire先生fee simple and fee tail(retaining th
19、e French word order)继承者有绝对处理权处理地产/限制继承者的地产/祖传土地fee absolute无条件继承权qualified fee有条件继承,attorney general(retaining the French word order)检查总长/首席检察官/司法部长laches用作单(行使法律权利或履行法律义务的)疏忽,怠慢metes and bounds(房地产的)四至/界线/边界oyez肃静(连续叫三次以示法庭的开庭)Quash=annul取消/废止(尤指通过司法行为)roll(as in judgment roll)法院案卷/存卷/记录/目录(存卷法官(Ma
20、ster of Roll)save(in the sense of except)specialty(in the sense of sealed contract)style(as in name and style)名称voire dire一切照实陈述(见证人或陪审员在接受审核时的誓语),5.Use of terms of art,A term of art is a technical word with a specific meaning and irreplaceable.Not everything that has the sound of the law is a term
21、of art.A term of art must be specific.There are numerous words which operate as a kind of shorthand among lawyers.Here are some law terms of art:agencyalias summons另外的传票alibiappeal,bail common countsdefendantdemurrerdry trust=被动信托 The term dry trust refers to a trust wherein the trustee has no actua
22、l responsibilities and no active duties to perform.fee simplefee tailfictitious defendantguaranteehabeas corpus guarantorjudicial notice司法认知 lacheslandlord/lessortenant/lessee,letters patentmaster and servantmonth-to-month tenancynegotiable instrument票据plaintiffprincipal and surety主事人和担保人Surrender 归
23、还（例如地产权）,尤指在期限未满之前放弃（租赁）tortvoir dire,Terms of art are useful legal words that,over time,have come to refer to recognizable legal concepts.They may be Latin terms,e.g.res ipsa loquitur事实自证(meaning thing speaks for itself)or they may be ordinary English words with a specialized meaning,e.g.proximate
24、cause 近因(保险用语)/remote cause远因,negligence,and foreseeability.Terms of art are useful simply because they provide a short way to refer to a long concept.,6.Use of argot,Argot(=cant or jargon)is specialized vocabulary that is common within a group,whether or not deliberately designed to exclude the non
25、-member of the group.The language of the law,sometimes even a particular word,has a dual aspect.Lawyers use language that is intended to speak to lawyers and laymen,as in contracts,jury instructions,notices,and even laws.Lawyers also use language that is intended to speak primarily to each other,as
26、in pleadings,opinions,argument and in the day-to-day negotiation and discussion that is the lawyers life.In this aspect,a portion of the language of the law is ARGOT,a professional language.E.g.:,alleged有嫌疑的alter ego另一个我/个性中的另一面；知己argumentativeat issuebail exonerated开脱/免除 Blackacre 是一个虚构的概念，代表财产权的一种
27、标的物：某一块土地或某一栋房屋breaking and enteringcame on for hearingfour corners of the instrument:the term for studying an entire document to understand its meaning,without reference to anything outside of the document(extrinsic evidence),such as the circumstances surrounding its writing or the history of the p
28、arty signing it.Unless examination cannot resolve an ambiguity in the documents language,it should be construed based upon what lies within its four corners.,casecause of actiondamagesdue care inferior court issue of fact关于事实的争论点 issue of law关于引用法律的争论点 pierce the corporate veilpurported传说的；假设的 pursu
29、ant to stipulationrecordreversed and remanded发回重审superior courtwell settledwithout prejudice,7.Frequent use of formal words,The style of using formal words in legal language has been described as solemn,mystical,and dignified,e.g.the polite expression of former days,approach the bench instead of com
30、e here,euphemisms like the deceased and the decedent and undomesticated Latin and French arrested in flagrante delicto instead of caught in the act,etc.More examples:,adjudgecame on for hearingdecreeprior to(instead of before)sat down for hearingstrangers to the bloodsubsequent(instead of after)toll
31、 the statute:To remove the effect of(the court did not toll the statute of repose after the statutory period had expired)whereas(meaning given the fact that)without prejudice,8.Deliberate use of words and expressions with flexible meanings,It is generally agreed that precision is one of the major ch
32、aracteristics of the language of the law.Legal writers are advised to avoid any words or expressions which are likely to cause ambiguity or vagueness.That is why lawyers customarily choose their words more carefully than non-lawyers.But sometimes they deliberately choose words with flexible meanings
33、.Here is a fair sample of law words and phrases which are often used because they are flexible or despite their flexibility:,aboutabuse of discretionadequate(as adequate cause/compensation/consideration/remedy,etc.)and/orapparentlyapproximatelyas soon as possibleavailableaveragecareclean and neat co
34、nditionclear and convincing,comparableconvenientdesiredoubtlessdue(as due care/process)excessiveexistingexpensesextraordinary(as extraordinary service)extreme crueltyfair divisionfewFixture 附属物gross(as gross profit)habitualimproperin regard to inadequate,intentionintoxicatedlargelatelymalicemeremore
35、 or lessnearnet profitobviouspossiblepromptlyproperreasonable(as reasonable care/man/speed/time,etc.)regularsatisfaction,satisfyserious(as serious illness/misconduct,crime,circumstances,etc.)similarsound mindsufficientsuitabletemporarilythingstransactiontryunder the influence of understand,undue(as
36、undue influence/interference/restraint,etc.)unreasonableunsafeunsoundunusualusualvaluablevoluntaryworthless,In translating words with flexible meanings,translators do not have to worry about the vagueness that might arise.What they can do is to keep faithful to the original and leave the problem of
37、vagueness for the judges,because Judges make law.,9.Use of doublets and triplets and synonyms在各种法律条文中,我们可以常见到以下的类似用法:rights and interests权益,terms and conditions条款,complete and final understanding全部和最终的理解,customs fees and duties关税,losses and damages损坏,null and void无效,sign and issue签发,这些词表示固定的意义,使用和翻译
38、时不能随意拆开。More examples of doublets and triplets：,moneys,obligations and liabilitiesmake payment,performancein the funds and currencywithholding,deduction扣除unless and until=untilconstitution or partnersamount due or owingincurred or arising out or in connection therewithincurred,created,assumedagree a
39、nd declarecredit or facilitiesdeed or covenantguarantee,indemnity,assurance,pledgebill,note,mortgage,chargeright,power or remedyvalid or enforceableinvalid or unenforceabledefect,or insufficiency or wantirregular or impropertaking or raising any pointindulgence or concessionterms or conditions by th
40、is act and deedall and singularafter or change,cease and desistconfessed and acknowledgedcovenants and agreesdo and perform each and everyfixtures or fittingsfree and completefull and completegood and effectualgood and sufficientgoods and chattelshad and receivedin connection withlast will and testa
41、ment,any matter,fact or thingnominate,constitute and appointloans or advances made or to be madecompromise,arrangement or settlementby virtue of or in connection withpaid,discharged and satisfiedrelease,discharge or settlementprovisions or enactmentin full force and effectcombine or consolidate all
42、or any of sbs accounts of any nature or description whatsoevercoming into your possession or controlunder or pursuant to in your sole and absolute discretion,valid or effectivebe cumulative and in additionto do or cause to be doneagrees and consentsbe declared or adjudgedillegal,invalid or unenforce
43、ableillegality,invalidity or unenforceabilityremain in full force,validity and effectgood and validjudgment,award and/or ordersigned,sealed and delivered,made and entered intomeans and includestotally null and voidorder and directperform and dischargerepair and make goodsave and exceptsettle and com
44、promisesuffer or permitterms and conditionstried and tested,true and correctunless and untilwell and sufficientlyany matter,fact or thingsconvey,transfer and set over give,devise and bequeath rest,residue and remainder,重言词/同义词的使用absolutely uniqueascend upblend togethercondense downcontinue oncoopera
45、te togetherforward planningimportant essentialsmutually agreepast historytotally unanimous,10.Use of absolutes,In addition of the use of terms of art,there is a recurrent choice of absolutes like the following:allimpossibleirrevocablelast clear chancenevernoneoutright perpetuityunavoidable unbrokenu
46、niformwhereverwhoever,There are phrases designed to keep the restricted restricted:and no moreand no other purposeshall not constitute a waivershall not be deemed a consent There are phrases intended to keep the broad broad:including but not limit to.or other similar or dissimilar causes.shall not b
47、e deemed to limitwithout prejudicenothing contained herein shall.,11.ConclusionThose are the major lexical characteristics of the language of the law.Most lawyers use traditional law language because they believe that ordinary English is beneath a professionals dignity;as it should be-when ordinary
48、English is bad English or when law language says it better.In fact,ordinary English is not always bad English,and law language does not always say it better,or more precisely.Simple language can achieve the correct style and tone by being straightforward,clear,precise and complete(using no more word
49、s than are necessary).Although some people may insist that plain language is not appropriate for legal writing,there has been a movement among lawyers towards using plain English.In order to achieve the proper tone,the following factors must be taken into account:,(1)your potential readers:clients,j
50、udges or general public;(2)the readers needs and knowledge of the subject matter;(3)what you need to say in the circumstances.One of the essentials for producing-writing or translating-clear,concise,precise,and jargon-free legal documents is the choice of words.In The Elements of Legal Writing,M.Fau
