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1、Lecture one INTRODUTION,HOW PEOPLE MAKE DECISIONS,People face trade-offs.The cost of something is what you give up to get it.Rational people think at the margin.People respond to incentives.,人们如何作出决策,人们面临权衡取舍某东西的成本就是为得到它所放弃的东西理性人考虑边际量人们会对激励作出反应,“There is no such thing as a free lunch!”天下没有免费的午餐,Prin
2、ciple#1:People Face Trade-offs.人们面临权衡取舍,Making decisions requires trading off one goal against another.,Principle#1:People Face Trade-offs.,To get one thing,we usually have to give up another thing.Guns v.butterFood v.clothingLeisure time v.workEfficiency v.equity,Making decisions requires trading o
3、ff one goal against another.,原理1:人们面临权衡取舍,为了得到我们喜爱的一件东西，我们通常不得不放弃另一件喜爱的东西。大炮 vs.黄油食物 vs.衣服休闲 vs.工作效率 vs.平等,Principle#1:People Face Trade-offs,Efficiency v.EquityEfficiency means society gets the most that it can from its scarce resources.Equity means the benefits of those resources are distributed f
4、airly among the members of society.,原理1:人们面临权衡取舍,效率与平等效率 社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最多东西的特性。平等 社会资源的经济成果在社会成员中公平分配的特性。,Principle#2:The Cost of Something Is What You Give Up to Get It.,Decisions require comparing costs and benefits of alternatives.Whether to go to college or to work?Whether to study or go out on a
5、date?Whether to go to class or sleep in?The opportunity cost of an item is what you give up to obtain that item.,原理2:某东西的成本就是为得到它所放弃的东西,作出决策时需要比较可供选择的行动方案的成本与收益。上大学还是去工作?学习还是出去约会?去上课还是睡觉?机会成本为了得到某种东西所必需放弃的东西。,Principle#2:The Cost of Something Is What You Give Up to Get It.,Basketball star LeBron Jam
6、es understands opportunity costs and incentives.He chose to skip college and go straight from high school to the pros where he earns millions of dollars.,原理2:某东西的成本就是为得到它所放弃的东西,篮球明星 LeBron James 明白机会成本和激励。他决定不读大学而直接进入职业篮球联盟（NBA），一年可以赚取几百万美元。,Marginal changes are small,incremental adjustments to an e
7、xisting plan of action.,People make decisions by comparing costs and benefits at the margin.,Principle#3:Rational People Think at the Margin.,边际变动对当前行动计划微小的增量调整。,人们作决策时需要比较边际成本和边际利益。,原理3:理性人考虑边际量,Principle#4:People Respond to Incentives,Marginal changes in costs or benefits motivate people to respon
8、d.The decision to choose one alternative over another occurs when that alternatives marginal benefits exceed its marginal costs!,原理4:人们会对激励作出反应,成本或收益的边际改变会激励人们作出反应。当一个方案的边际收益大于边际成本时，人们选择这个方案，而不去选择别的!,HOW PEOPLE INTERACT,Trade can make everyone better off.Markets are usually a good way to organize ec
9、onomic activity.Governments can sometimes improve economic outcomes.,人们如何与他人相互交易,贸易可以使每个人状况更好。市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法。政府有时能改善市场经济效果。,Principle#5:Trade Can Make Everyone Better Off,People gain from their ability to trade with one another.Competition results in gains from trading.Trade allows people to spec
10、ialize in what they do best.,原理5:贸易能使每个人状况变好,人们可以从与他人相互交易的能力中获益。竞争可以使人们从贸易中获益。贸易可以让人们从事他们最专长的工作。,Principle#6:Markets Are Usually a Good Way to Organize Economic Activity,A market economy is an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they i
11、nteract in markets for goods and services.Households decide what to buy and who to work for.Firms decide who to hire and what to produce.,原理6:市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法,市场经济当许多企业和家庭在物品与劳务市场上相互交易时通过他们的分散决策配置资源的经济。家庭决定购买什么和为谁工作企业决定雇佣谁和生产什么。,Principle#6:Markets Are Usually a Good Way to Organize Economic Activi
12、ty,Adam Smith made the observation that households and firms interacting in markets act as if guided by an“invisible hand.”Because households and firms look at prices when deciding what to buy and sell,they unknowingly take into account the social costs of their actions.As a result,prices guide deci
13、sion makers to reach outcomes that tend to maximize the welfare of society as a whole.,原理6:市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法,亚当.斯密提出了全部经济学中最有名的观察结果：家庭和企业在市场上相互交易，他们仿佛被一只“看不见的手”所指引，导致了合意的市场结果。由于家庭和企业在决定购买和出售什么时关注价格，所以他们就不知不觉地考虑到了他们的行为的社会收益与成本。结果是，价格指引这些个别决策者在大多数情况下实现了整个社会福利最大化的结果。,Principle#7:Governments Can Sometim
14、es Improve Market Outcomes,Markets work only if property rights are enforced.Property rights are the ability of an individual to own and exercise control over a scarce resourceMarket failure occurs when the market fails to allocate resources efficiently.When the market fails(breaks down)government c
15、an intervene to promote efficiency and equity.,原理7:政府有时能改善市场结果,只有产权得到执行时，市场才能正常运行。产权是指个人对其拥有的某种稀缺资源行使控制权的能力。市场失灵市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况。当市场失灵时，政府可以对市场进行干预以促进效率和平等。,Principle#7:Governments Can Sometimes Improve Market Outcomes,Market failure may be caused by:an externality,which is the impact of one person o
16、r firms actions on the well-being of a bystander.market power,which is the ability of a single person or firm to unduly influence market prices.,原理7:政府有时能改善市场结果,市场失灵的可能原因是:外部性，它是一个人或企业的行为对旁观者福利的影响。市场势力，它是指一个人或企业不适当地影响市场价格的能力。,HOW THE ECONOMY AS A WHOLE WORKS,A countrys standard of living depends on
17、its ability to produce goods and services.Prices rise when the government prints too much money.Society faces a short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment.,整体经济如何运行,一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力。当政府发行了过多货币时，物价上升。社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍。,Principle#8:A Countrys Standard of Living Depends on Its Abili
18、ty to Produce Goods and Services,Standard of living may be measured in different ways:By comparing personal incomes.By comparing the total market value of a nations production.,原理8:一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力,生活水平 可以用不同的方式衡量:比较人均收入比较一个国家产出的总的市场价值。,Principle#8:A Countrys Standard of Living Depends on Its A
19、bility to Produce Goods and Services,Almost all variations in living standards are explained by differences in countries productivities.Productivity is the amount of goods and services produced from each hour of a workers time.,原理8:一国的生活水平取决于它生产物品与劳务的能力,几乎所有生活水平的差异都可以归因于各国生产率的差别生产率 是指一个工人一小时所生产的物品与劳
20、务量。,Principle#9:Prices Rise When the Government Prints Too Much Money,Inflation is an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy.One cause of inflation is the growth in the quantity of money.When the government creates large quantities of money,the value of the money falls.,原理9:当政府发行了过多货
21、币时物价上升,通货膨胀 是指经济中物价总水平的上升。通货膨胀的一个原因是货币量的增长。当一个政府创造了大量本国货币时，货币的价值就下降。,Principle#10:Society Faces a Short-run Trade-off between Inflation and Unemployment,The Phillips Curve illustrates the trade-off between inflation and unemployment:Inflation or UnemploymentIts a short-run trade-off!The trade-off pl
22、ays a key role in the analysis of the business cyclefluctuations in economic activity,such as employment and production,原理10:社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍,菲利普斯曲线 说明了通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍:通货膨胀或失业这是短期权衡取舍!在分析商业周期（即经济活动的波动，如失业和产出波动）时，权衡取舍的概念起着关键作用。,The principles of personal decision making are:People face trade-off
23、s.The cost of something is what you give up to get it.Rational people think at the margin.People respond to incentives.,个人决策的原理是：人们面临权衡取舍某东西的成本就是为得到它所放弃的东西 理性人考虑边际量人们会对激励有所反应,The principles of economic interaction are:Trade can make everyone better off.Markets are usually a good way to organize econ
24、omic activity.Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes.,经济贸易的原理是：贸易可以使每个人状况更好市场通常是组织经济活动的好方法 政府有时能改善市场效果,The principles of the economy as a whole are:A countrys standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services.Prices rise when the government prints too much money.Soci
25、ety faces a short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment.,经济整体运行的原理：一个国家的生活水平取决于其生产物品与劳务的能力。当政府发行过多货币时，物价上升。社会面临着通货膨胀和失业的短期权衡取舍。,The Scientific Method:Observation,Theory,and More Observation,Uses abstract models to help explain how a complex,real world operates.Develops theories,collects a
26、nd analyzes data to evaluate the theories.,科学方法:观察,理论,更多的观察,利用抽象的模型帮助解释复杂的真实世界如何运行。形成理论，收集并分析数据来验证理论。,Economists make assumptions in order to make the world easier to understand.The art in scientific thinking is deciding which assumptions to make.Economists use different assumptions to answer differ
27、ent questions.,The Role of Assumptions,为了使这个世界更容易理解，经济学家做一些假设。科学思考的艺术就是决定作出什么样的假设。经济学家利用不同的假设来回答不同的问题。,假设的作用,Economic Models,Economists use models to simplify reality in order to improve our understanding of the world.Two of the most basic economic models are:The Circular Flow DiagramThe Production
28、Possibilities Frontier,经济模型,经济学家利用模型来简化真实世界，使我们更好地理解这个世界。两个最基本的经济学模型是：循环流向图生产可能性边界,Our First Model:The Circular-Flow Diagram,The circular-flow diagram is a visual model of the economy that shows how dollars flow through markets among households and firms.,0,第一个模型:经济循环流向图,循环流向图一个直观地说明一个经济体内家庭和企业之间的经济
29、交易行为的简单方式。,0,Figure 1 The Circular Flow,Spending,Revenue,Income,=Flow of inputs,and outputs,=Flow of dollars,经济循环图,企业,家庭,生产要素市场,物品与劳务市场,Our Second Model:The Production Possibilities Frontier,The production possibilities frontier is a graph that shows the combinations of output that the economy can p
30、ossibly produce given the available factors of production and the available production technology.,第二个模型:生产可能性边界,生产可能性边界 表示一个经济在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产量的各种组合的图形。,Figure 2 The Production Possibilities Frontier,Quantity of,Cars Produced,0,3,000,1,000,Quantity of,Computers,Produced,生产可能性边界,汽车产量,0,3,000,
31、1,000,计算机产量,Our Second Model:The Production Possibilities Frontier,Concepts illustrated by the production possibilities frontier EfficiencyTrade-offsOpportunity costEconomic growth,第二个模型:生产可能性边界,生产可能性边界阐明的概念效率权衡取舍机会成本经济增长,Figure 3 A Shift in the Production Possibilities Frontier,Quantity of,Cars Pro
32、duced,0,Quantity of,Computers,Produced,生产可能性边界的移动,汽车数量,0,计算机数量,Microeconomics and Macroeconomics,Microeconomics focuses on the individual parts of the economy.How households and firms make decisions and how they interact in specific marketsMacroeconomics looks at the economy as a whole.Economy-wide
33、phenomena,including inflation,unemployment,and economic growth,微观经济学与宏观经济学,微观经济学 的研究对象是经济中的个体。家庭和企业如何作出决策，以及他们如何在特定市场上相互交易。宏观经济学 研究经济总体现象广泛的经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。,Positive versus Normative Analysis,Positive statements are statements that attempt to describe the world as it is.Called descriptive analys
34、isNormative statements are statements about how the world should be.Called prescriptive analysis,实证分析与规范分析,实证表述 是企图描述世界是什么的观点。被称为描述性分析规范表述 是企图描述世界应该如何运行的观点。被称为命令性分析,Positive Versus Normative Analysis,Are the following positive or normative statements?An increase in the minimum wage will cause a decr
35、ease in employment among the least-skilled.POSITIVEHigher federal budget deficits will cause interest rates to increase.POSITIVE,?,?,?,?,实证分析与规范分析,下述是实证性表述还是规范性表述？提高最低工资水平会导致最低技能工人的就业减少。实证性较高的联邦赤字水平会导致利率上升。实证性,?,?,?,?,Positive Versus Normative Analysis,Are the following positive or normative stateme
36、nts?The income gains from a higher minimum wage are worth more than any slight reductions in employment.NORMATIVEState governments should be allowed to collect from tobacco companies the costs of treating smoking-related illnesses among the poor.NORMATIVE,?,?,?,实证分析与规范分析,下述是实证性表述还是规范性表述？提高最低工资水平得到的利益比由此带来的稍微的就业减少造成的损失大。规范性应该允许州政府向烟草公司收取费用，用于治疗穷人当中与吸烟有关的疾病。规范性,?,?,?,Experiment of Market,Supply v.s.Demand,Question,Opportunity cost in reality？Positive versus Normative Analysis?,
