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1、Definition,By far there is no uniform definition According to Lakoff(1987:60),markedness is a term used by linguistics to describe a kind of prototype effectan asymmetry in a category,where one member or subcategory is taken to be somehow more basic than the other.Correspondingly,the unmarked member
2、 has the default value.,introduction,The notion of markedness was introduced into Prague School for evaluating the members of an oppositional pair as“marked”and“unmarked”A marked form is a non-basic or less natural form while an unmarked form is a basics,default form.horse/mareThe concept of markedn
3、ess involves asymmetricity the presence or absence of a property or feature.In general,where the contrast is neutralized(only one member of the pair can occur)the one which occurs is usually“unmarked”in that environment,examples,Introduction,Markedness originally developed from phonologyThe marlked
4、and unmarked phenomenon only exist in oppositional pairs of phonemes not all the phonemes.When two phonemes are distinguished by the presence or absence of a single distinctive feature,one of them is said to be marked and the other unmarked for the feature in question.Eg./t/-/d/k/-/g/b/-/p/s/-/z/.,E
5、xtension of Markedness Theory,(b)markedness theory in morphology The application of markedness theory in morphology is called formal mark(形式标记)First，the singular form of words is usually unmarked,while the plural form of words is marked.the regular English verb is marked for past tense,unmarked in t
6、he present.Eg.tree/trees,box/boxes,jump/jumpedSecondly,some complementary words such as prince/princess,actor/actress,words with suffix ess are marked while words without ness are unmarked,Extension of Markedness Theory,(c)markedness theory in lexicon Some words are unmarked and some are marked.Eg,h
7、e/she“he”is unmarked No one in his senses would do a thing like that.No one in her senses would do a thing like that.Eg.dog/bitch dog is unmarked,but“bitch”can only refer to female dogs Eg.high/low;old/young;good/bad,etc.How old are you?Not how young are you？How high is the building?,Extension of Ma
8、rkedness Theory,(d)markedness theory in grammar Eg,do/does;visit/visited;go/going;tom/toms The former is unmarked(e)Markedness in syntax Eg I dislike this person.It is unmarked This person I dislike.It is marked,it refers to someone specific.Eg the flower is beautiful.How beautiful the flower is!,2.
9、Development,Markedness theory was founded by two linguists N.Trubetzkoy and R.Jakobson of Prague School(1)Trubetzkoy and phonetic contrastIn the book principle of phonology,Trubetzkoy distinguished nine phonetic contrasts,He argues that there are three kinds of opposition(a)privative opposition表缺对立，
10、which refers to that it is the only one distinctive feature to distinguish A from B,if A has this feature,B not.eg,/b/vs./p/,/b/has the feature+aspirated(b)gradual opposition渐次对立，which mesas the opposition between some phonemes lies in the different degree of the same feature.eg./I/e/lies in the dif
11、ferent degree of mouth-openness.(c)equipollent opposition均等对立，which means that the opposite phonetics have their distinctive features respectively.eg/p/-/t/-/k/is that they are labial,alveolar and velar respectively.,2.Development,(2)Jackobson and distinctive featuresIn the book preliminaries to spe
12、ech analysis,he listed 12 distinctive features,（3）Chomsky-the polishing stage of markedness theory,Chomsky published The Sound Pattern of English,he reapplied markedness theory to study phonological problems and polished the theory.In N.Chomskys Markedness Theory marked rules and unmarked ones are n
13、ot absolute and clear-cut but relative.,（4）new stage of development,Markedness theory is expanded to many aspects both within and outside linguistic area.Within linguistics(A)markedness in semantics Lyons distinguishes three types of lexeme markings:formal markedness,distributional markedness and se
14、mantic markedness.He views that semantic markedness of a word is a matter of degree.Eg.“dog,cow,man”dog unmarked,containing the meaning of”being male”and“being female”“cow”is weaker in degree,it can refer to all kinds of oxen in broad meaning.“man”is much weaker in degree,(b)Markedness in pragmatics
15、,the code-choice study of markedness is a remarkable hallmark of the development of Markedness Theory in pragmatics.The code-choice is a means by which speakers harmonize the rights and responsibilities between the speaker and the listener.there are three kinds of code choices:the choice of the unma
16、rked code,the choice of the marked code and the choice of the tentative code.(zhu wanjin,1994)Eg,“how do you do”is a common greeting when the two strangers meet for the first time.But if one keeps silent when he/she meets with another one for the first time,it will show a special meaning which is ab
17、solutely different from what“how do you dou?”implicates.in other words,the social greetings are often unmarked or meaningless in the communicative circumstances and they are just exchanges of conventional greetings and have no meaning at all.,(c)Markedness in semioticsThe meaning and content of mark
18、ed sign is determined but the unmarked is fuzzy and uncertain.Eg.traffic signs are considered to be marked.“No parking”is marked,if there is no sign then it is unmarked,because we dont see the sign of“parking”,.(d)Markedness in social linguistics Markedness in social linguistics indicates specific s
19、ocial information such as gender,identity,career and so on.Eg nanny and many.,（e)Markedness Theory in cognitive linguistics,Cognitive linguistics explains that typical members or unmarked items have the significance on cognition,they are most likely to draw peoples attention.They are most easily sto
20、red and extracted in information processing.,Outside linguistics,it expands to culture,literature,music and so on.,(1)markedness in culture symbols Linda Waugh(1982)did a research,she found that USA is a country with“right hand culture”,.So most American products are for people who are used to use their right hands,and products for left hands users are special.So right is unmarked while left is unusual and marked.(2)sexism and Markedness Theory Eg hero/heroine;prince/princess Man/woman;dog/bitch,
