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1、Syntax,组员：陈雪芹、齐丽丽、高伟、陈静、黄雪、段彬彬、丁静,句法学简介,1.Definition:Syntax is the study of rules(governing the structure of phrase and the structure of sentence)or the interrelationships of elements in sentence structure.All in all,it focus on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence.,2.Syntax-fr
2、om word to text(how to organize words into phrase,further into sentences.It is concerned with the combination of words).Purpose:study the rules and reveals the relationship of the form and the function/meaning of language.,Basic Concepts,3.The Prescriptive Approach-the traditional grammar,lay down r
3、ules for the correct or proper use of English,mainly according to the grammar of Latin.The word order depends on some factors:Grammatical category/part of speech/word class,number,gender,case,tense,aspect,concord,government,4.The descriptive approach-to describe the regular structures of the languag
4、e as it it used objectively,not according to some view of how it should be used.Position:It is the basis of most modern attempt to characterized the structure of different language.Classification:Structure analysis Immediate constituent analysis,(1)Structural analysis-study the distribution of lingu
5、istic forms in a language.Syntagmatic relation:is a relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between the elements which are all present(horizonal relation).Paradigmatic relation:is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a atructure or be
6、tween one element present and the others absent(verdical relation,substitution relation),(2)immediate constituents（ICs）直接成分:constituents directly below the level of a constructionultimate constituents(UCs)最终成分:last level of constituents,Advantages of IC analysisIt helps to account for the ambiguity
7、of certain constructions.e.g.The son of Pharaohs daughter is the daughter of Pharaohs son.It clearly demonstrates that sentences are not mere left-to-right linear sequences of elements.Instead,elements come into relationships of great complexity and varying kinds.(胡壮麟，P125-126),The son of Pharaohs d
8、aughter is the daughter of Pharaohs son=（1）The daughter of Pharaohs son 法老儿子的女儿=（2）The daughter of Pharaohs son 法老女儿的儿子,Disadvantages of IC Analysis1.It results in technical problems due to discontinuous constituents.E.g.Leave+the book+on the shelf.2.It results in ambiguity problems.E.g.the love of
9、God,the shooting of the hunters,Basic components of a sentence,Sentence Subject Predicate a referring expression comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and says something about the subject,5.constituent structure grammarThe idea of constituency,which reveals a hierachy of structural levels,is refe
10、rred to as a constituent structure grammar.,Lexical categories词汇范畴,The name given to classes into which lexical items are grouped.-There are traditionally 8 classes:Noun,Pronoun,Verb,Adjective,adverb,preposition,conjunction-Modern linguistic theories have more,-They are also known as parts of speech
11、 and word classes,Classification of Lexical Items,How are words classified into classes?-Phonological criteria“To inCREASE the number of students,we need an Increase in funding.”-Semantic criteria,structural ambiguity“Flying planes can be dangerous”if you live under the flight path.if you havent got
12、 a pilots license.,Common monadic categories are:1.S Sentence-The largest category capable of syntactic categorization-I saw the big aeroplane.-How large is the plane?-Rob was flown by the aeroplane which Jane saw.,2.Phrase Structure,N V A P word level NP VP AP PP phrase level,NP Noun Phrase-Defined
13、 as a category that can bear some grammatical function in a sentence,e.g.as subject or direct object.,Types of NPNP NP NP NP N Pron.Det N Det Adj NJohn he,we,she a,the,apple the red apple this,that NP NPDet N PP NP Subject a story about the hero the person who talked to me,VP Verb Phrase-A category
14、consisting of a verb,its complements(补语）and its adjuncts(附加语).-John put the book on the table.(the book and on the table are complements of put)-The girl saw the woman in the park with the telescope(in the park and with the telescope are the adjuncts of saw),Types of VP VP VP VP V NP V PP V Shit the
15、 ball speak about the book said that he had told lies VP VPV Adv V run fast Look!,PP Prepositional Phrase-A phrase containing a preposition and a noun phrase.-on the table.-in the park-with the telescopeIt is possible to have a PP within a PP:-in the park with the telescope,PP AP P NP Deg Adj about
16、the book very little,S NP VP V-Bar specifier head Complement Susan rarely does so,e.g.,6.Transformational Generative Grammar,TG A description of the possible rules of human language that allow for infinite production of grammatical sentences.tries to define a universal grammar(UG),Three levels of tr
17、ansformational rules:The basic rule is Chomskys universal grammar,the underlying principleThe second type is the obligatory rules that govern the transformations of auxiliaries and principlesThe third type is the optional transformational rules that govern the transformatons of negotion,passive voic
18、e,interrogation,Deep structure and surface structure,Deep Structure-the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.,Base component DEEP STRUCTURE Transformations(Subcategorization restricts choice of complements)SURFACE STRUCTURE(Note:When transformations are not necessary
19、,the representations of these two levels are the same),is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of construction people actually produce and receive.,S,NP,VP,Det,N,V,the,train,Infl,will,arrive,Surface Structure,see,Mary,
20、John,John saw Mary.,S NP Infl VP N pst V N John see Mary,Further illustration:Deep structure,S NP Infl VP N pst V PP P NMary was seen by John,Case Grammar,Filemore suggested that the main verbs in a sentence are the most important part of the sentences and have a number of relationship with various
21、noun phrases.These relationships are called cases.Cases,also called thematic roles or the participant role of the verb,which also include:,1.Agent-the intiator of some action,capable of acting with volition,which is considered as logical subject and commonly occurs in subject position2.patient-the e
22、rtity undergoing the effect of some action,often undergoing some change in state,which is considered as the logical object and commonly occur in direct object direction3.theme-the ertity that is moved by an action,or whole location is described,4.instrument-the means by which an action is performed
23、orr something comes about,7.systemic functional grammar The related three systems:transitivity system,thematic system,mood system.Theyre influenced by the three functions respectively.Three metafunctions:(i)Ideational function:the field of discourse Construct a modle of experience and logical,relati
24、ons ie,express content,language can be used to convey the expression of the real world and the inner world.(ii)interpersonal function:the tenor of discourse language can be used to enact and maintain social relationship in terms of stratification,class,status,role solidarity and distance,(iii)textua
25、l function:the mode of discourse Create relevance to context ie,language itself can make seprate sentences semantically coherent through some grammatical and semanticdevices.,The main achievements of the funtional approach 1.Functional sentence perspective sentence(i)Point of departure:the theme(主位)
26、of the sentence,known or old information(ii)Goal of discourse:rheme(述位),the very information that the speaker wants to import to the hearer.So rheme is the new information to the hearer.Sentence structure:the theme to rehme,2.systemic functional grammarSystemic grammar&functional grammarThe first ex
27、plain the internal relations in language as system network,which consists of subsytems from which the users make choices.The latter aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction(language is inseparable from social activities of man),Summary,This part has introduced lexical categories
28、 and phrase categories,followed by an analyses of syntactical rules:the s-rule,phrase structure rules,coordination rule,deep structure sub-categorization,transformational rules,and surface structure,etc.which are expected to enable students to combine words into novel sentences in an endlessly way.,
