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1、Chapter 3 Lexicon,1.What is word,Word:a unit of expression that has universal intuitiverecognition by native-speakers,whether spoken or written1.1 Three senses of“word”:A physically definable unit:Word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between tow pauses or blanks.Phonological an
2、d orthographic(书写上)Problem:When liaison and contracted forms occur,2)Word both as a general term and as a specific term:boy,boys check,checks,checked,checkingLexeme(词位):the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language,which appears in different grammatical contextsW
3、rite-write,writes,wrote,writing,writtenFat-fat,fatter,fattest,3)A grammatical unit:sentenceclausephrasewordmorphemeProblem:free morphemes or words:black,bird,air,craft,town,hall,1.2 Identification of words,1)Stability:the constituent parts of a complexword cannot be rearranged chairmanmanchairThe ch
4、airman looked at the audience.The audience looked at the chairman.2)Relative uninterruptibility:New elements cannotbe inserted into a word even when there are severalparts in a word.disappointment dis+appoint+mentPaul,(Jane)and Rebecca are my classmates.,3)A minimum free form:the smallest unit that
5、can constitute a complete utterance by itself,eg-Is Jane coming tonight?-Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.,1.3 Classification of words,Variable vs.invariable words:Variable words:One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms;on the other hand,part of the word remains constant
6、follow,follows,following,followed;mat,matsInvariable words:those words such as since,when,seldom,through,hello.They do not have inflective endings.2)Grammatical words vs.lexical words:Grammatical words:express grammatical meanings,such as conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronounsLexical words:have
7、 lexical meanings,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and adverbs.,The lexical words carry the main content of a language(content words)and the grammatical words serve to link the different parts of a sentence together(function words).3)Closed-class words
8、 vs.open-class words:Grammatical-lexical words closed-class-open-class wordsClosed-class:a word whose membership is fixed or limited.New members are not regularly added.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.Open-class:A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.Nouns,verb
9、s,adjectives,adverbsNote:The distinction is not quite as clear-cut as it seems.Prepositions:regarding,throughout,out of,according to,with regard to,in spite of,be means of Auxiliary verbs,4)Word class:It is close to the notion of Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Eight or nine word classes are
10、established:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,article.,Some new categories:Particles(助词):the infinite marker(to),the negative marker(not),the subordinate units in phrasal verbs(get by,do up,look back)b.Auxiliaries(助动词):used to be regarded as verbs,linguists tend
11、 to define them as a separate word class rather than verbs.,c.Pro-form(替代形式):refers to the closed sets of items which can be used to substitute for a nominal group(名词词组)or a single noun.Pro-adjective:Your pen is red.So is mine.Pro-verb:He knows English better than he did.Pro-adverb:He hopes hell win
12、 and I hope so too.Pro-locative(代处所词):James hiding there,behind the door.,d.Determiners(限定词):words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase,and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has,e.g.the,a(n),some,all Quirk,et al.(1985:253):three subclasses of determiners:Prede
13、terminers:all,both,half,double,twice,three times,one-third,one-fifth Central determiners:a,an,the,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,their,Postdeterminers:cardinal numerals(基数词),ordinal numerals(序数词),general ordinals(一般顺序词):next,last,past,(an)other,ad
14、ditional and other quantifiers like many,a few,several,much,little,a lot of,plenty of,a great deal of,a great number ofWhen different sub-classes of determiners occur together,they follow the order of predeterminers+central determiners+postdeterminers.their all trouble all their trouble,Within each
15、subclass,the members are usually exclusive of each other.*their all trouble*five the all boys*all this boy*all both girlsBut ordinal numerals and general ordinals may occur before cardinal numerals.the first two daysanother three weeks,2.The formation of word,2.1 Morpheme(语素)&morphology(形态学)Chairman
16、:chair,manTownhall:town,hallBoys:boy,-sChecking:check,-ingDisappointment:dis-,appoint,-mentThe components of a word are known as morphemes.They themselves cannot be further analyzed.,Morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be
17、divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.Morphology studies the internal structure of words,and the rules by which words are formed.,2.2 Types of morphemes,1)Free morpheme&bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)In terms of their
18、 capacity of occurring aloneFree morphemes:those which may occur alone,i.e.those which may constitute words by themselves dog,nation,closeAll monomorphemic words are free morphemes.,Compounds:polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,paymaster,moonwalk,babysit,godfather,sunflowerBou
19、nd morphemes:those which cannot occur alone distempered:dis-,temper,-ed,2)Root,affix&stem(词根、词缀和词干)Poly-morphemic words may be divided into roots and affixes.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.InternationalismAll words contain a root morp
20、heme.An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).Affix is naturally bound.,Affixes are limited in number in a language,and are generally classified into three subtypes,prefix(前缀),suffix(后缀),and infix(中缀).Prefix:para-
21、,mini-un-Suffix:-ise,-tionInfix:foot/feet,goose/geese,A root may be free or bound,but an affix is naturally bound.First,free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words,e.g.black(black,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith).Free root morphemes are potentially unli
22、mited in number in a language.Second,there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English,e.g.-ceive(receive,perceive,conceive);-mit(remit,permit,commit,submit);-tain(retain,contain,maintain);-cur(incur,recur,occur),Third,a few English roots may have both free and bound variants.Sleep and chil
23、d slept and childrenA stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix(屈折词缀)can be added.Friend-in friends,and friendship-in friendships,3)Inflectional affix generate,generation,Second,inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,such as
24、 flower,flowers,whereas derivational affixes might or might not,such as small-smallness,brother-brotherhood.Derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.,Third,whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors within the phrase or sentence.e.g.The bo
25、y likes to navigate on the internet.Derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.Clever,cleverness,In English,inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes,which are always word final.drums,walks,MarysDerivational affixes can both be prefixes and suffixes.suburban,depart,onlin
26、e slaver,teacher,workable,2.3 Word-formation,Two fields morphology(形态学)concerns:the study of inflections INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY the study of word formation LEXICAL or DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY,1)Inflection:the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,suc
27、h as number,person,finiteness(有定性),aspect(体)and case（格),which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.Nominal forms:boys,boysVerb forms:wants,wanted,wantingAdjective/adverb forms:smaller,smallest,2)Word formation:the process of how words are formed Two sub-types:T
28、he compositional type COMPOUNDThe derivational type DERIVATION,i.Compound:those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme,the way to join two separate words to produce a single formicecream,sunrise,paperbag,cloakroom,cupboard,drugstore,railwayIn compounds,the lexical morphemes can be of d
29、ifferent word classes.Two or more free roots combine to make a new word.Noun compounds:daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmillVerb compounds:brainstorm,lipread,babysitAdjective compounds:gray-haired,insect-eating,dutyfreePreposition compounds:into,throughout,Compounds can be further divided into two kinds
30、:the endocentric compound(向心复合词)the exocentric compound(离心复合词)Endocentric:one element serves as the head,the relationship of“a kind of”;eg self-control:a kind of control armchair:a kind of chairExocentric:there is no head,so not a relationship of“a kind of something”,eg scarecrow:not a kind of crow
31、breakneck:not a kind of neck,Ways of writing a compound:Solid:Compounds can be written as a single word:wardrobe,bodyguard,seashore.Hyphenated:They can also be joined with a hyphen:wedding-ring,traffic-light,simple-minded.Open:Some can be written with ordinary spaces between the two parts:washing ma
32、chine,traffic island,counter revolutionary.Free variation:businessman,business-man,business manwinebottle,wine-bottle,wine bottle,ii.Derivation:Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.un+conscious unconscious nation+al national national+ize nationalize nationalize+ation nationalizati
33、onDerivations can make the word class of the original either changed or unchanged.,Class-changing:NV:lengthen,hospitalize,discardNA:friendly,delightful,speechlessVN:worker,employee,inhabitantVA:acceptable,adorableAN:rapidness,rapidityAV:deafen,sweetenAdjAdv:exactly,quickly,Class-preserving:NN:nonsmo
34、ker,ex-wife,bookletVV:disobey,unfastenAA:grayish,irrelevant,Forms derived from derivation are relatively large and potentially open.pre-,-ableIn English there is usually one inflectional affix per word,but multiple derivational affixes are allowed.monumental,transcendental,capability,musicality,acco
35、untancy,dependency,characterization,joyfulness,silliness,effectively,beautifully,delightfully,AmericanismSome words can carry both prefixes and suffixes.Bipartisan,abbreviation,bigamist,continuously,contradiction,2.4 Sememe vs.Morpheme,and Phoneme vs.Morpheme,1)Sememe vs.morpheme SEMEME is the small
36、est component of meaning.e.g.The morpheme s has only one sememe:PLURALITY,meaning more than one.The relationship between sememe and morpheme,five mapping and non-mapping occasions:i.One morpheme vs.one sememe One morpheme has only one sememe.e.g.less,meaning WITHOUT fearless,careless,ceaseless,count
37、less,doubtless,shameless,faceless,speechless,faceless,ii.One morpheme vs.more than one sememeOne morpheme may have two or more than two sememes.e.g.a-three sememes arise,await awash,ablush atypical,asymmetry,iii.One sememe vs.more than one morphemeOne sememe is expressed with two or more than two mo
38、rphemes.表示no和non意义的语素除了a-之外，还有其他的语素，例如e-,il-,ne-,un-等 erostrate,illicit,neither,untidy,iv.Morphemes that have no specific sememe There are also morphemes that have no specific sememe,but may help change grammatical and semantic categories.e.g.en-enjoy,v.Function changes in both sememe and morpheme w
39、ithout morpheme changeThere are may also be no morpheme change in a word,but both the grammatical and the semantic categories would change according to the context it occurs.e.g.run run a company,in a short run,2)Morpheme vs.PhonemePhoneme:the smallest meaningful unit of soundMorpheme:the smallest m
40、eaningful unit in grammarThe correspondence between the two levels of language:MORPHONOLOGY or MORPHONEMICS-a branch of linguistics that refers to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the morpheme forms,and correspondingly,the morphological factors that affect the
41、phoneme forms.So,it studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.,There are several occasions of the relationship:i.A single phoneme vs.a single morpheme A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme,but they are not identical.See Ex.3-20 on Page 70.ii.A single morpheme vs.multi
42、ple phoneme Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structures other than a single phoneme.Morphemes may be monophonemic,monosyllabic or polysyllabic.See Ex.3-21 on Page 70.,iii.Allomorph(语素变体):Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts.Dog,bark,catBut a morpheme may have alternate
43、shapes or phonetic forms.e.g.the morpheme that express plurality in English.See Ex.3-23 on Page 71.,Like phoneme,morpheme is an abstract unit.Morphemes are put between braces like.Some morphemic forms represent different morphemes and thus have sememes.,iv.Morphemic conditions Morpheme shapes vary a
44、ccording to both phonological conditions and to the conditions of their own.There are two cases:a)Phonologically conditioned:The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors.injustice inperfect inefficient impenetrable infirm impossible,b)Morphologically conditioned:Morpheme
45、s can also be conditioned by morphological factors.Three requirements:First,all the allomorphs should have the same sememe,e.g.the plural morphemeSecond,all the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution.Third,allomorphs that have the same sememe should occur in parallel formation.See Ex.3-2
46、6 on Page 72.,3.Lexical Change,3.1 Lexical change proper(特有的词汇变化)1)Invention(新创词语):Kodak,Coke,nylon,granola2)Blending(混成法):a complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts
47、of the two words,transfer+resistortransistorsmoke+fogsmogmotorist+hotelmotelbreakfast+lunchbrunchmodulator+demodulatormodemdance+exercisedancerciseadvertisement+editorialadvertorialeducation+entertainmentedutainmentinformation+commercialinfomercial,3)Abbreviation(缩写词):Clipping(截断法)A new word is crea
48、ted by cutting the final part,cutting the initial part,and cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly.Back-clippings:ad(vertisement),chimp(anzee),deli(catessen),exam(ination),hippo(potamus),lab(oratory),piano(forte),reg(ulation)sFore-clippings:(ham)burger,(omni)bus,(violin)cello,(heli)copt
49、er,(alli)gator,(tele)phone,(earth)quake.Fore-and-aft clippings:(in)flu(enza),(de)tec(tive).Also used for English names:BobRobert,LizElizabeth Also popular in education:chemchemistry,examexamination,gymgymnasium,lablaboratory,mathmathematics,4)Acronym(缩写词):made up from the first letters of the name o
50、f an organization,which has a heavily modified headword CIA-Central Intelligence Agency EEC-European Economic Community UNESCO-United nations Educational,Scientific,and Cultural Organization WTO-World Trade Organization WB-World Bank This process is widely used in shortening extremely long words of
