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1、Morphology,1 The definition of morphology,Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words,and of the rules by which words are formed.Morphology is generally divided into two fields:the study of Inflections and of Word-formation.,2 Inflection,Inflection is the manife
2、station of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.Ex.number:table/tables apple/apples car/cars,2 Inflection,(b)person,finiteness and aspe
3、ct:talk/talks/talking/talked open/opens/opening/opened shout/shouts/shouting/shouted(c)case:boy/boys John/Johns university/universitysEach set in the above examples constitutes a single paradigm,that is,a set of grammatically conditioned forms all derived from a single root or stem.,3 Word-formation
4、,Word-formation,in its restricted sense,refers to the processes of word variations signalling lexical relationships.It can be further subclassified into the compositional type(compound)and the derivational(derivation).3.1 CompoundThe term Compound covers a wide range of different relations between l
5、exical words.For instance,3 Word-formation,Ex.Noun compounds day+break daybreak(N+V)play+boy playboy(V+N)hair+cut haircut(N+V)call+girl callgirl(V+N)wind+mill windmill(N+N),3 Word-formation,(b)Verb compounds brain+wash brainwash(N+V)lip+read lipread(N+V)baby+sit babysit(N+V)(c)Adjective compounds ma
6、n+eating maneating(N+Ving)heart+felt heartfelt(N+Ved)duty+free dutyfree(N+Adj),3 Word-formation,(d)Preposition compounds in+to into through+out throughout,Some features of the English compounds,Orthographically,a compound can be written as one word,two separate words with or without a hyphen in betw
7、een.Syntactically,the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.Semantically,the meaning of a compound is idiomatic,not calculable from the meanings of all its components.Phonetically,the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.,3 Word-formation,3.2 Derivati
8、onDifferent from compounds,derivation shows the relation between stems and affixes.For instance,un+conscious unconscious nation+al national national+ize nationalize nationalize+ation nationalizationIn contrast with inflections,derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed o
9、r unchanged.For instance,3 Word-formation,Word class changed:N V:length+en lengthen hospital+ize hospitalize un+horse unhorse dis+card discard N Adj:fool+ish foolish beast+ly beastly delight+ful delightful speech+less speechless virtue+ous virtuous,3 Word-formation,N Adj/Adv:clock+wise clockwise V N
10、:work+er worker pay+ee payee inhabit+ant inhabitantV Adj:accept+able acceptable adore+able adorableAdj N:mean+ness meanness rapid+ity rapidityAdj V:deaf+en deafen sweet+en sweeten,3 Word-formation,Adj Adv:exact+ly exactly quick+ly quickly(b)Word class unchanged:N N:non+smoker nonsmoker ex+president
11、expresident profit+eer profiteer book+let bookletV V:dis+obey disobey un+do undo,3 Word-formation,Adj Adj:tall+ish tallish il+logical illogical,4 Word and morpheme,44.1 MorphemeThe morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit which cannot be divided wi
12、thout destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.For instance,the word barks in The dog barks consists of two morphemes in orthographic forms:bark and s,neither of which can be further divided into other smaller meaningful units.Therefore,a morpheme is the mi
13、nimal unit of meaning.It is not like the sound patterns or syllables which can be further divided into segments.,4 Word and morpheme,Words may consist of one morpheme or more than one morphemes.Here are some example:1-morpheme:boy,desire2-morphemes:boy+ish,desir(e)+able3-morphemes:boy+ish+ness,desir
14、(e)+abl(e)+ity4-morphemes:gentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+able+ity5-morpheme:un+gentle+man+li+ness,4 Word and morpheme,4.2 Morpheme and phonemeA single phoneme may represent a single morpheme,but they are identical.The phoneme/z/in/gouz/(goes)represents the third-person singular present tense morphem
15、e,but/z/occurs very often when it has nothing to do with this specific morpheme.See the following examples:,4 Word and morpheme,(a)bees/bi:z/(b)bees/bi:z/(c)raise/reiz/In(a),the phoneme/z/represents the plural morpheme,whereas in(b),it represents the morpheme which means possessive case.However,in(c
16、),it means nothing at all.,5 Type of morphemes,5.1 Free morpheme and bound morphemeA free morpheme is one that may constitute a word(free form)by itself,such as bed,tree,sing,dance.A bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme,such as s in dogs,-al in national,dis-in discl
17、ose,and so on.,Thus,the word distempered has three morphemes,namely,dis-,temper,and ed,of which temper is a free morpheme,dis-and ed are two bound morphemes.In other words,all monomorphemic words are constituted by free morphemes.Those polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are c
18、alled compounds,such as paymaster,moonwalk,babysit,godfather,sunflower.,5.2 RootsPolymorphemic words other than compounds may divide into Roots and Affixes.A root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.That is to say,it is that part of the word lef
19、t when all the affixes are removed.In the word internationalism,after the removal of inter-,al and ism,what is left is the root nation.,Free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves such as black in black,blackboard,blackbird.Morphemes of this type are potentially unlimited in number in
20、 a language.However,there are relatively few bound root morphemes in English,such as ceive in receive,perceive,conceive;-mit in remit,permit,commit,submit;-tain in retain,contain,maintain;cur in incur,recur,occur,etc.,5.3 AffixAffix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used o
21、nly when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).Naturally,affixes belong to the type of bound morphemes.,Affixes are limited in number in a language,and are generally classified into three subtypes,namely,prefix,suffix and infix,depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of
22、the word.For instance,Prefix:para-,mini-,un-Suffix:-ise,-tionInfix:foot/feet,goose/geese,5.4 Root and stemA stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.Friend-in friends and friendship-in friendships are both stems.The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to
23、 a root,whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain two or more roots,i.e.,compound,such as blackbird,girlfriend,fighter-bomber,paper-clip,landlord.,Summary,1.What is morphology?2.Two fields of morphology:inflection and word-formation3.Difference between word and morpheme4.Types of morphemes,1)
24、Definition of morphome2)Two types of morphemesFree morphemes:They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves,for example,“book-”in the word“bookish”.,Bound morphemes:They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,eithe
25、r free or bound,to form a word such as“-ish”in“bookish”.Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes.A root is seen as part of a word;some roots can not stand by themselves although they have clear and definite meanings,such as“gene-”in the word“generate”,and“-ceive”in“receive”.,Affixes
26、are of two types:inflectional and derivational.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as“-s”in the word“books”to indicate plurality of nouns.Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as“mis-”in the word“misinform”.D
27、erivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes.Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as“dis-”in the word“dislike”,while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as“-less”in the word“friendless”.,Exercises,Define the following terms:morpheme inflection derivation affix co
28、mpound root stem,Exercises,2.Complete the words with suitable negative prefixes:_ removable g._ human_ formal h._ relevant_ practicable I._ evitable_ sensible j._ mobile_ tangible k._ legal_ logical l._ discreet,irremovable(挥之不去的)g.inhuman（不人道的）informal h.irrelevantimpracticable(不切实际的)I.inevitablein
29、sensible(没有知觉的)j.immobile(静止的)intangible(无形的)k.illegalillogical l.indiscreet(轻率的),in-;ig-,il-,im-,ir-(in-在辅音n,l,m,p,r前的变体。l加在形容词、名词、副词上，有：“无，不，非，未”之意，例如：incapable(不能的)incomparable（无比的）insensitive（不灵敏的）inability（不能）inconsistently（不一致的）inelastic（非弹性的）ignoble(不名誉的)ignore（装不知）impossible（不可能的）immeasurabl
30、e（不可测量的）impatientin-patientout-paitient impurity（杂质）immoral（不道德的）illegal（非法的)illimitable（无限的）illogical（不合逻辑的）irregular（不规则）irreversible（不可逆的）irrotational（非旋转的）,un-与in-的含义和用法相近似,un-一般是和本族语词干或本族语里已采纳的外来语词干相结合，而in-一般是和拉丁语词干相结合。比较：unable（不可能的）-inability（无能）unjust（不公的）-injustice（不公正）unlucky-ill-luck inan
31、unluckyhour,偏偏，偏巧 unceasing-incessant（不断的）unexplained（不能解释的）-inexplicable（不可解释的）ungrateful（忘恩负义的）-ingratitude（忘因负义）有时，为了区别词义，往往分别用un-和in-。例如：unexpressive(=inexpressive)(辞不达意),inexpressible(不可言传);unpractical(=impractical)(不切实际),impracticable(行不通)。,另外un-和in-在构词上有以下区别：（1）in-或im-开头的单词，不再加in-，而用un-，如unim
32、aginable（不可想象的）unimproved（未改进的）但inimitable（不可摹仿的）例外。(2)词尾是拉丁语后缀-ate,-ent,-ant,-ite,-ible的单词，多半用-in.inadequate(不充分的)insubordinate（不服从的）irrelevant（不相干的）incessant（不停的）independent（不依赖的）inconsistent（不一致的）indefinite（不确定的）impolite（不礼貌）indefensible（无法防御的）infusible（难熔的）,（3）词尾是本族语后缀-able,-ed,-ful,-ing,-like,-
33、ory,-some的单词，多半用un-。unable(不可能的)unconquerable(不可征服的)undecided（未决定的）unlimited（无限的）unceasing（不断的）unbending（不弯曲的）unsuccessful（不成功的）unfruitful（无结果的）unsportsmanlike（不公正的）unsatisfactory（不令人满意的）unhandsome（不美好的）unwholesome（不适合满意的）另外在同根词中un-和其他表示“否定”意义的前缀在词类或词义上也有区别。比较：inhuman（不近人情）unhuman（不属于人类的）nonhumna（不属于人类的）,Exercises,3.Describe the morphological rules concerned in exercise 2,the relevant conditioning process,and the morpheme which carries the common negative meaning.,
