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1、Pzo三nalnsoosQo-qndPolicyResearchWorkingPaper10667reGlobalValueChainsWomenFriendlyinDevelopingCountries?EvidencefromFirm-1.evelDatapzuolnalnsoosQ9-qnC1.MarizeKallinyChahirZakiWOR1.DBANKGROUP*T7MiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegionOfficeoftheChiefEconomistJanuary2024PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10667AbstractDes
2、pitetheeffortsmadetoincreasewomensinclusionintheeconomy,theyarestillunderrepresentedintradeingeneralandinglobalvaluechainsinparticular.Thus,(hispaperaimsatexaminingtheimpactofglobalvaluechainsonwomenstradeparticipationasentrepreneursandemployees.Italsoanalyzeshowthiseffectismoderatedthroughexternal(
3、genderprovisionsintradeagreements)andinternal(investmentclimatevariables)factors.Theanalysisusesfirm-leveldatafor154developingeconomiesandemergingmarketswithaspecialfocusontheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaregion,beingoneoftheregionswiththelowestfemalelaborforceparticipation.Themainfindingsshowthatglobalva
4、luechainsintegrationincreasesthelikelihoodofbeingafemaleownerandtheshareoffemaleemployees,especiallyproductionones.Alessrobustnegativeeffectisfoundibrtheimpactonbeingafemaletopmanager.Theseeffectsaremoderatedbytheinclusionofgenderprovisionsintradeagreementsandbythecharacter-isticsoftheinvestmentclim
5、ate(especiallytaxpolicy,accesstofinance,andcorruption).Theseresultsremainrobustaftercontrollingfortheendogeneityofglobalvaluechainsusinganinstrumentalvariableapproachandapropensityscoreestimationmethodwherethetreatmentisbeingpartofaglobalvaluechains.Thus,globalvaluechainscanbeperceivedasatoolthatboo
6、stswomen,sempowermentinemergingeconomics,especiallyintheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaregion.ThispaperisaproductoftheOfficeoftheChiefEconomist,MiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegion.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworl
7、d.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebathttp:/www.worldbank.org/prwp.Theauthorsmaybecontactedatchahir.zakifeps.edu.eg.hePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdissenibiatesthefifuimgsofw)rkinprogresstoencourageheexchangeofideasObOMldevelopmentissues.An(objectiveoftheseriesistogetthefitdingsoutq
8、uickly,evenifthepresentatiofisareIexsthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Tliefindings,UUerpreUitions.amiconclusionsexpressedinthisIMlPerareentirelythoseofthewup,.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheImemaiionalBankforReconsinciionandDevelopniefuZWorld
9、Bankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldHankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.Producedby(heResearchSupportTeamAreGlobalValueChainsWomenFriendlyinDevelopingCountries?EvidencefromFirm-1.evelDataTheauthorsgratefullyacknowledgethefinancialandanalyticalsupportfromtheOfficeof
10、theChiefEconomistfortheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MNACE)undertheregional1.aborandGenderResearchPrograms(TT1.s:NellyElmallakhandNazmulChaudhury).Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforRecon
11、structionandDeveIopmentAVorIdBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.TheauthorsaregratefultoMhamedBenSaleh,EnricoMarvasiandtheanonymousrefereesforconstructivefeedback.MarizeKallinyPhDCandidateatUniversityClermontAuvergne,CNRS.IRD,CE
12、RDI,F-63000Clermont-Ferrand,France.Assistant1.ecturerofEconomics,FacultyofEconomicsandPoliticalScience-CairoUniversity(onleave).Email:marize.kalliny(feps.edu.egChahirZakiChairedProfessorofEconomics,UniversityofOrldansand1.abord,Economicd,Orlcans,EconomicResearchForumandEMANES.Email:chahir.zaki()univ
13、-orleans.frJE1.Classification:F12,F16,F23,J16Keywords:GlobalValueChains,Gender,Empowerment,Firm-level,MENA1. IntroductionWomenhavealwaysplayedasignificantandpivotalroleintheeconomythroughtheirremarkablepresenceinbusiness,agriculture,industryandeventhroughtheirunpaidcarework.Despitetheeffortsmadetoin
14、creasewomen,sinclusionintheeconomy,around2.4billionwomendonothaveaccesstoequaleconomicopportunitiesasmenaccordingtotheWorldBank,sWomen,Businessandthe1.awreport(2022).Furthermore,basedonareportpublishedonwomenbytheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP),womenperform66%oftheworld,swork,produce50%ofthe
15、food,butearnonly10%oftheincome.Inaddition,differentstagesoftheproductionprocessareincreasinglybeingfragmentedacrossdifferentcountriesthroughglobalvaluechains(GVCs),especiallyinemergingeconomies.Forthisreason,thisstudyattemptstoassesstheimpactofGVCsonwomen,sempowermentininternationaltrade.Indeed,inre
16、centyears,theworldhaswitnessedagrowinginterestintheimpactofglobalizationoneconomicpatternsingeneralandgenderequalityinparticular.AsignificantfocushasbeenonthegenderimpactofGVCsastheyhaveproventheirpowertogenerateemployment,drivedevelopment,andincreaseincome.Thesevaluechainscanhelpwomenbyprovidingmor
17、eincomethatcansupporttheireconomicempowermentbutcanalsodowngradethemtopoorlypaidandundervaluedjobs.Hence,consideringgenderissuesandaddressingthemiscriticalinordertotakeadvantageofthepotentialofGVCs,which,inturn,guaranteesabetterachievementofsustainableeconomicandsocialgoalsby2030.Inthepreviouslitera
18、ture,therelationbetweenwomen,sempowermentandinternationaltradewasambiguous.ThefirststrandofstudieswasinlinewiththeneoclassicaltheorybasedonBecker(1959)andaccordingtowhichdiscriminationiscostly.Hence,theincreaseofindustrycompetitivenessduetotradeparticipationreducestheincentivestodiscriminateagainstw
19、omenespeciallyinconcentratedindustriesthanincompetitiveones.Forinstance,Boleretal.(2015)usematchedemployer-employeedatafromtheNorwegianmanufacturingsectorandprovethattradeparticipationhasnarrowedthegenderwagegapinexportingfirmsrelativetonon-exporters.Similarly,Juhnetal.(2014)andBlackandBrainerd(2004
20、)reachthesameconclusionusingvariousdatasets.Nevertheless,contradictoryresultshavebeenproveninotherstudies.Forinstance,inastudybasedinIndia,Taiwan,andChina,Beriketal.(2004)showthatcompetitionresultingfrominternationaltradeincreaseswagediscriminationagainstfemaleworkers,whichdoesnotgoinlinewiththeneoc
21、lassicaltheory.Moreover,usingdifference-in-differcnceestimationanddatafromtheDemographicCensusfor1991and2000fieldedbytheBrazilianCensusBureau,GaddisandPieters(2017)showthattradeliberalizationdecreasedthemaleandfemalelaborforceparticipationrate.Theeffectissignificantlylargeronmen,whichmeansthatlibera
22、lizationreducedthegendergapinemploymentandparticipationrates.Nevertheless,theresultsshownoevidencethatwomengotanybenefitfromthecompetitiveeffectsofliberalizationastheiremploymentandparticipationratedidnotincreaserelativetothoseofmen.Theliteraturealsoshowsthatthelimitedornegativeemploymenteffectwasdu
23、etootherconcomitantfactorssuchastheeffectofanti-sweatshopactivism(HarrisonandScorse2010)andtheconstitutionofminimumwageforexporttariffprivileges(delCarpioetal2015).Bystudyingtheoppositedimensionofthesubject,KaramandZaki(2021)arguethatfemalelaborparticipationintheMENAregionhasapositivesignificantimpa
24、ctonbothtrademargins.Furthermore,theirresultsshowthatfemaleownershippositivelyaffectstheprobabilityofexportsoflargefirms.RegardingtherelationbetweenGVCsandwomen,sempowe11nent,somestrandsoftheliteraturestudiedtheimpactofGVCsongenderwagedisparity.Forinstance,Deb(2021)usestheTradeinValueAddedDatabase(T
25、iVA)bytheOrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)andconcludethatneitherbackwardnorforwardlinkageswereabletoimprovetherelativewagesoffemaleworkersinIndia.Nevertheless,Jenkins(2005)confirmedthatwomenwagesandworkingconditionsarebetterinGVCs.Furthermore,fewpapershavediscussedtheimpactofGV
26、Csonwomen,semploymentingeneral.GVCparticipationhasbeenproventoincreasefemaleemploymentespeciallyfordevelopingcountries(ShepherdandStone,2013;BamberandStaritz,2016).Yet,itisimportanttonotethattheimpactofGVCsonfemaleempowermentcanbemoderatedthroughseveralexternalandinternalfactors.Attheexternallevel,t
27、hescopeofdraftingofregionalandbilateraltradeagreementshasbeenlargelyexpandedtoaccommodateseveralSustainableDevelopmentGoals.Alargesetofagreementsprioritizedenvironmentalmattersthroughtheinclusionofclimatechangeandenvironmentalprotectionprovisions(Martmez-Zarzoso,2018).1.aborrightsrelatedprovisionsal
28、sogainedalargeinterestasstartingfrom2016,morethan136countriesnegotiatedatleastonefreetradeagreement(FTA)thatencloseslaborrightsrelatedprovisions(I1.O,2017;Harrison,2019).However,onlyfewstrideshavebeenmadeinordertoincludemoregenderrelatedprovisionsinFTAssinceamongallFTAsinforce,only20%ofthemincludeex
29、plicitchaptersorclausesthatendeavortoachievegenderequalityandtoempowerwomen(Monteiro,2021).Similarly,accordingtothegenderandtradereport(UNCTAD,2020),only74outof500RTAs(around15%)includeprovisionsthatprioritizegenderissues.Yet,itisworthmentioningthatitisnotthenumberofprovisionsorlengthofchaptersinclu
30、dinggenderconsiderationsthatmatterbuttheirenforcement.Bahri(2021)showshowsomeRTAssuchasCanada-ChileandCanada-IsraelAgreementsincludewholechaptersthataddressgenderissues;however,thereisalackoflegalobligationsthatensuretheirproperimplementation.Conversely,otherRTAssuchastheStabilizationandAssociationA
31、greementbetweentheEuropeanCommunitiesandtheRepublicofMontenegro,wheregenderprovisionsareincludedinthechapterondevelopmentandnotstandalonechaptersforgenderissues,aremoreefficientduetotheexistenceofstronglegalobligationsthatenforcethepartiestorespecttheclausesandtostopanydiscriminationbasedongender.At
32、theinternallevel,andgiventhediscriminationagainstwomenonthelabormarket,theymightfacemorebarrierswhenitcomesaccesstofinance,permitstostartabusiness,taxpolicy,etc.ThisiswhyitisimportanttoseehowtheeffectofGVCsonwomen,sempowermentismoderatedbytheobstaclestheymightface.Againstthisbackground,therearenopre
33、viousempiricalstudies,toourknowledge,thattackletheimpactofGVCsonwomensentrepreneurshipindevelopingcountriesandespeciallytheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MENA)region,whichischaracterizedbybothlowfemalelaborforceparticipationandlowintegrationintoGVCs.Inaddition,noempiricalstudieshavebeenconductedtoassessth
34、eimpactofgenderprovisionsonwomen,sengagementininternationaltradeintheMENAregion.Indeed,comparedtotheotherregions,theMENAregionisrankedthelowestintheworldforattaininggenderequalitybasedontheWorldEconomicForum,sGlobalGcndcrGapReport(2021).Moreover,basedontheWomenPeaceandSecurity(WPS)Index,theMENAregio
35、n*sperformancewasverypoorasitcomprises12ofthe25worstperformingcountriesglobally(DanonandCollin,2021).Therefore,thecontributionofthispaperistwofold.First,itfocusesontheimpactofGVCsonwomen,stradeparticipationasentrepreneursandemployees.Second,weanalyzehowthiseffectismoderatedthroughexternal(genderprov
36、isionsintradeagreements)andinternal(investmentclimatevariables)factors.Todoso,weusefirm-leveldatafor154developingeconomiesandemergingmarketswithaspecialfocusontheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaregion.OurmainfindingsshowthatGVCintegrationincreasesthelikelihoodofbeingafemaleownerandtheshareoffemaleemployees,
37、especiallyproductionones.Alessrobustnegativeeffectisfoundregardingtheimpactonbeingafemaletopmanager.Theseeffectsaremoderatedbytheinclusionofgenderprovisionsintradeagreementsandbythecharacteristicsoftheinvestmentclimate(especiallytaxpolicy,courts,accesstofinanceandcorruption).Theseresultsremainrobust
38、afterwecontrolfortheendogeneityofGVCusinganinstrumentalvariableapproachandapropensityscoreestimationmethodwherethetreatmentisbeingpartofaGVC.Thus,GVCscanbeperceivedasatoolthatboostswomen,sempowermentinemergingeconomies,especiallyintheMENAregion.Theremainderofthepaperisorganizedasfollows.Section2pres
39、entsthedataweuseandsomestylizedfactsonGVCsandwomen,sparticipation.Section3isdedicatedtothemethodologyandtheeconometricspecification.Section4presentstheempiricalresults.Section5providesrobustnesschecks.Section6concludesandprovidessomepolicyimplicationstoincreasewomen,semploymentthroughtradeandGVCchan
40、nels.2. DataandStylizedFactsToexplorethenexusbetweenfirms,integrationintoGVCsandwomen,stradeparticipationasentrepreneursandemployees,firm-levelpooleddatafromtheWBESisused.Thesesurveyscoverabroadrangeofbusinessenvironmenttopicssuchasaccesstofinance,trade,corruption,competition,andinfrastructurefor143
41、,598firmsin154developingeconomiesandemergingmarkets.Themanufacturingandservicessectorsaretheprimarybusinessofinterestinthesesurveysconductedinarangeoftimethatvariesfrom2006to2021(seeAppendix1).TheobjectiveofthissectionistoprovidesomedescriptivestatisticsrelatedtothenexusbetweenGVCsandwomen,sparticip
42、ation.TodefineGVCs,wefollowthedefinitionofDovisandZaki(2020)wheretheleaststrictdefinitionincludesfirmsthatexportandimportsimultaneously(GVCl).Second,twostricterdefinitionsarerelatedtofirmswhoaresimultaneouslyexportersandimportersandhaveeitheraninternationalcertification(GVC2)orashareofitscapitalowne
43、dbyaforeignfirm(GVC3).Thestrictestdefinitioncombinesthefourcriteriaaltogether(GVC4).ThisvariableisadummyvariablethattakesavalueofoneifthefirmispartofaGVCandzerootherwise.Basedonthesedefinitions,aroundone-thirdoffirmsarepartofGVCswithmostofthembeingtwo-waytradersandonly2.3%thataretwo-waytrader,haveaf
44、oreigncapitalandaninternationalcertification(seeTableAlinAppendix3).ItisimportanttonotethatthesetwodefinitionshelpusmeasureGVCparticipationattheextensivemarginlevel,nottheintensivemarginone.Attheregionallevel(seeFigureAlinAppendix3),EuropeandCentralAsia(ECA)isthemostintegratedregioninGVCs(foralldefi
45、nitions)andSouthAsiatheleastintegratedone.TheMENAregion,whilebeingslightlybetterthanSouthAsia,isstillfarfromothertopperformerssuchasECAand1.atinAmericanandtheCaribbean.ThisconfirmspreviousfindingsoftheliteratureonGVCsintheMENAregionthatischaracterizedbyanunfriendlybusinessclimate(DovisandZaki,2020),
46、politicalconnections(Kruseetal.,2021andAboushadyandZaki,2022)andthepresenceofdifferenttradebarriers(whethertariffsornon-tariffmeasures,seeKaramandZaki(2021).Asitwasmentionedbefore,thispaperattemptstoexaminethenexusbetweenwomenslaborparticipationandGVCsintegration.1.AChasthehighestshareoffull-timefem
47、aleemployeesfollowedbyEAPandECAandontheotherextremeSouthAsiaandtheMENAregion.Inaddition,foralltheregionsproductionworkersaremuchhigherthannon-productionones(seeTableA2inAppendix3).Whiletheformeraremainlyworkinginthemanufacturingsector,thelatterareintheservicesone.ThisisconfirmedbyTable1thatshowsthat
48、beingintegratedinaGVCispositivelyassociatedtoalargernumberoffemales,whetherproductionornon-productionworkersbutmoreproductionones.ThisresultappliestothedifferentGVCsdefinitionsbearinginmindthatforthemostrestrictivedefinition,theresultsarealsodrivenbythefirmsize(aslargerfirmsaremorelikelytobepartofGV
49、Cs).SuchapositiveassociationisrathergoodnewsgiventhatGVCsshouldmainlytakeplaceinthemanufacturingsector,whichislikelytocreatemorejobsforfemaleproductionworkers(bluecollars)thatareabundantinemergingeconomies.Table1.TheAverageNumberofFemaleEmployeesandGVCsGVClGVC2GVC3GVC4NoYesNoYesNoYesNoYesFemaleEmployees19.8143.1920.6079.2721.1287.8621.30108.81FemaleProductionWorkers14.3572.8321.4585.1323.95
