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1、Chapter 1 Introduction,Preliminaries:What is language?What is language used for?,(1) about language 1.A generally accepted definition:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language must be a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is symbolic. Language is prim
2、arily vocal. Language is human-specific.,许国璋先生对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是人类特有的一种符号系统,当它作用于人与人的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体和容器。,What are the features of human languages?In what ways are human languages different from the communicative system of other animals?,2. design featur
3、es of human language arbitrariness(任意性):There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.e.g.书(汉)-book(英)A rose by any other name would smell as sweet (Shakespeare).,Find some cases in which the language we use is not arbitrary.*onomatopoeia(拟声): quack-quack bangcrashroarcuckoo ding dongka
4、 chapu tong*compounds:rainbowbittersweetpickpocket* pictograph (象形文字) /hieroglyph(象形符号)休从北,Arbitrariness and convention,roductivity/creativity (创造性):We can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences we have never heard before.We can create endless sentences.e
5、.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who,duality of structure(结构的二重性):Human language is a system consisting of two sets of structures or two levels. the higher level: a structure of meaningful units (morphemes or words) the lowe
6、r level: a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselvese.g. pencakep e n k ei k,Is it significant for human languages to have duality of structure?What would happen if human language had only one system of structure?Does the traffic light system have duality, why?,displacement(不受时空限制的特征)
7、:Language can be used to refer to things which are present or absent, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.e.g.A:When are you moving to America?B:Im not sure yet. Maybe next month.,cultural transmission:Language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on fr
8、om one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.e.g. the story of a wolf child,What are the functions of human languages?,3.functions of languagephatic:Hello. Good morning.Lovely weather, isnt it?吃饭了吗?去哪里呀?directive:Pass me the salt, please.Dont do that any more.
9、Youd better do it yourself.,informative:Water freezes at 32 degrees and boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit.interrogative:What time is it now?performative:e.g.(the chairman): Now I declare the meeting open.(the judge):I sentence you to 10 years in prison.,expressive:Im sorry to hear that.Im glad to meet
10、 you.Thank you very much!Congratulations!evocative:The use of language to create certain feeling in the hearer. Its aim is to amuse, startle, anger or please.e.g. jokes, threat, warningmetalingual:Words like “I, you, he” are pronouns.,*other classifications:A. descriptive functionexpressive function
11、social functionB.ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能,C.addresser - emotive情感的addressee - conative意动的context - referential所指的message - poetic诗学的contact - phatic交感的code - metalinguistic元语言的,4.the origin of languagethe divine-origin theory:According to Christian belief
12、, God gave Adam the power to name all things.“So he (God) took some soil from the ground and formed all the animals and all the birds. Then he brought them to the man to see what he would name them, and that is how they got their names.,the invention theory:Many people think that man invented langua
13、ge.Some people believe that language at its earliest stage consisted of “cries of nature”.Others suggest that language arose out of the grunts of men working together.,the evolutionary theory:In the long process of evolution, men gradually stood up. Free use of the lungs and the vocal cords made it
14、possible for men to articulate sounds.Some believe that it is labor that created the necessity for language.,(2) about linguisticsLinguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language.A person who studies linguistics is usually referred to as a linguist.,1.main branches of lin
15、guisticsphonetics, phonologymorphologysyntaxsemanticspragmaticsstylistics sociolinguisticsneurolinguistics psycholinguisticsapplied linguisticscomputational linguistics,Can you think of some fields to which linguistic knowledge can be applied?,2.some important distinctions:descriptive vs. prescripti
16、ve:If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (描述性的); if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive (规定性的).People say X.Dont say X, say Y.,sync
17、hronic( 共时的) vs. diachronic(历时的): The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. Old Englishs Middle English s Modern English sd,langue and parole (Saussure)Langue (语言系统)refers to t
18、he abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole(言语) refers to the realization of langue in actual petence and performance (Chomsky)Chomsky defines competence(语言能力) as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance (语言运用)the actual re
19、alization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.,traditional grammar and modern linguistics:1.Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.3.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.,Further reading:Fromkin, V., R. Robert & N. Hyams. 2010. An introduction to language(9th edition). Widdowson, H.G.，2000，语言学M，上海外语教育出版社。桂诗春，1988，应用语言学M，湖南教育出版社。胡壮麟，2006，语言学教程M（第三版），北京大学出版社。,
