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1、语言学复习,1. Invitations to Linguistics,What is language?What are the design features of language?What is arbitrariness?What is duality?What is creativity?What is displacement?,7. The origin of language.8. What functions does language have?9. What is Linguistics?10. What are the main branches of linguis
2、tics?11. Important distinctions in Liguistics.1、Descriptive & Prescriptive （描写与规定） 2、Synchronic L & Diachronic L (共时L与历时L) 3、 Langue & Parole（语言与言语） 4、Competence & Performance（语言能力与语言应用）,Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system.Language is arb
3、itrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic(内在的) connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” Romeo and Julier,“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between huma
4、n language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission.,2. Speech Sounds,1. What is phonetics?2. What are the three main branches of phonetics?3. Classification of English Consonants.4. Classification of Vowels.5. What is p
5、honology?6. Whats the difference between phonetics and phonology?7. What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?,What is phonetics? The science studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classifi
6、cation and transcription.,1Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学Phonetics 2Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学 3Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学,1. Articulatory Phonetics : the study of the production of speech sounds.,2. Acoustic Phonetics ：is the study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.,3. Auditory Phon
7、etics ：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.,Stop （Plosive） 塞音（爆破音） b p t d k gNasal 鼻音 m n Fricative 擦音 f v s z Approximant 中通音 j r wLateral 边通音 lTrill 颤音 r Tap and Flap 触音 Affricate 塞擦音 t d,Bilabial 双唇音 p b mLabiodental 唇齿音 f vDental 齿音 Alveolar 齿龈音 t d n r s z lPostalveolar 后齿龈音 d tR
8、etroflex 卷舌音 rPalatal 腭音 jVelar 软腭音 k g Uvular 小舌音 rPharyngeal 咽音Glottal 声门音,“Phonology” is the study of sound systemsthe invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns.音位学研究的是一种语言的整个语音系统及其分布或布局状况，包括某一特定语言里的语音或音位分布和结合的规则或规律。,Phonetics studies how speech sounds are m
9、ade, transmitted and received.Phonology is the study of the sound systems of languages.,1） Phone（音素）: a phonetic unit, the smallest part of phonetics. p t k heg. tip; pit; spit 语音属于言语2） Phoneme（音位）：phonological unit 是音位学单位，音位属于语言。/ph p=/ 3）Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones representing a phoneme
10、 are allophones./pit/; / tip/; /spit/,3. From Morpheme to Phrase,What is morphology?What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?What is a root? What is a stem? What is an affix?What are open classes? What are closed classes?What is word?,“Morphology” is
11、 the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.“Morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided.An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one
12、 morpheme.,Free Morphemes: independent of other plete meaning; used as free grammatical units in sentencesman, earth, wind, car, angerBound Morphemes: cannot occur as separate words recollection re/collect/ion,Root（词根） : is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss
13、 of identity.Stem（词干）: may consist of a single root morpheme or plus one or more affixational morphemes.Affixes（词缀）: are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.,Closed class words （封闭类词） Open-class words （开放类词） 1) Closed words : their membership is fixed or l
14、imited. E.g. pro. prep. conj. art. etc. 2) Open-class words: whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. e.g. n. v. adj. adv. E.g. regarding / with regard to ; throughout, in spite of,Word: is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning.,4. From Word to Text,1. W
15、hat is syntax?2. What is category? What is syntactic category?3. What is IC analysis? 4. What are endocentric and exocentric constructions?5. What is concord?,1. What is Syntax? Syn :“together ” Tax:“to arrange”Syntax: It studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a
16、language. In short: It studies the formation of sentences.,2. CategoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic category: 能在句子中起相同作用的词构成相同的句法范畴。句法范畴不同于词类，两个属于不同词类的词可能属于同一句
17、法范畴。,3. What is Immediate Constituent (IC) Analysis? The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction（结构体） and its Constituents（成分）. To analyze their relations is IC. To show how small constituents in sentences go together to form large constituents.,With Bloomfields IC A
18、nalysis: The boy kicked the ball The boy kicked the ball,S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The boy kicked the ballWith Chomskys Tree Diagram analysis,4. Endocentric and Exocentric constructions:向心结构和离心结构 P78 Endocentric Construction: is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more
19、 of its constituents. A word or a group of words serves as a definable “center.”某一成分决定了整体短语的性质two pretty girls,Exocentric Construction: opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole; t
20、here is no definable centre or head inside the group.整体短语中的成分无法决定整体短语的性质。 It includes basic sentence, PP, (V+O) construction, and connective construction (be+complement).,Concord : also known as Agreement, the form of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in term
21、s of some categories. There is a book on the shelf.There are some books on the shelf.We are studying English.He studies English.,5. Meaning,1. What is semantics?2. What is referential theory?3. What is ideational theory?4. What is the Semantic Triangle?5. How many kinds of meaning did Leech find and
22、 study?6. What is sense relation?7. What is entailment? What is presupposition？ 8. What is componential analysis?,Semantics: is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as
23、the referential theory.,Frege 为弥补指称论之不足，提出了观念论，认为语言符号和符号所指对象之间不存在直接的指称关系，它是经过涵义（Sense）这一过渡层面使得语言与所指对象发生联系的，意义不仅仅在于与所指对象之间的关系，也包括词语本身的涵义。,Ideational Theory 观念论,Ogden & Richards(1923): Semantic Triangle (Triangle of Significance) P36 Concept(Sense) 概念（涵义） -word (symbol) thing (referent) 符号形式 指称对象,G .
24、Leech recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics.1. Conceptual meaning 概念意义2. Connotative meaning 内涵意义3. Social meaning 社会意义4. Affective meaning 感情意义5. Reflected meaning 反射意义6. Collocative meaning 搭配意义7. Thematic meaning 主题意义,Sense relation: A word which is related to other words in sense within
25、 a language system itself. 词与词之间不同的涵义关系,Polysemy Homonymy Sense Relation Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy,1. Polysemy (一词多义) ：is the common feature peculiar to all natural languages.,2. Homonymy: The words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or s
26、pelling.,Perfect homonym Homonymy Homographs Homophones,3. Synonymy （同义关系）: words different in sound and spelling but nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.,4. Antonymy （反义关系）: as words which are opposite in meaning. Complementaries Types of antonyms Contraries Converses,V. Hyponymy （上下义关系）: d
27、eals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.,Entailment 蕴涵关系：Entailment is an important sense relation or logical relation between sentences. a. John killed Bill. b. Bill died. a. I saw a boy. b. I saw a child
28、.(3) a. John is a bachelor. b. John is an unmarried.,Presupposition 预设下句为上句的预设。 甲：当今法国国王是个秃子。 乙：当今法国有位国王。,Componential Analysis(语义成分分析)：by breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components , digging them out and classifying them, and showing their relationships is termed componential ana
29、lysis.,father， mother，son，daughter包含了一种两实体间关系的词 HUMAN MALE ADULTMan + + +Woman + +Boy + + Girl + ,6. Language and Cognition,1. What is Cognition?2. What are the main basic elements of cognition?3. What is the core principle of Cognitive Linguistics?4. What is iconicity?5. What is prototype theory?6.
30、 What is image schema?7. What is metaphor? What is metonymy?8. What is salience?,What is Cognition？,Cognition：“认识”和“认知”英汉词典“认识”指客观事体及其规律在人脑中的反映。感+理辞海（1989,1999）：认知就是认识，指人类认识客观事物、获得知识的活动，包括知觉、记忆、学习、言语、思维和问题解决等过程。现代汉语词典（第5版）：通过思维活动认识、了解。,认知最基本的两个要素：,动觉图式和基本范畴：通过人的身体与客观外界互动而产生的，可被直接理解，其他概念和范畴则主要是通过隐喻认知
31、机制而被简洁认知的。,认知语言学的核心原则,语言也是一种认知活动，是对客观世界进行互动体验和认知加工的结果。现实 认知 语言,象似性,语言符号象似于人们的认知方式，且在其作用下一定程度地象似于现实世界，语符形式在音、形或结构上与其所表达的意义之间存在映照相似的现象。该描写不仅反映了象似性具有普遍性，存在于语言的不同层面，而且还为象似性理论提供了一条可应用的系统研究线索。音义象似 形义象似 距离象似性 数量象似性 顺序象似性,句法象似性,距离象似性John Haiman （1983）象似动因与经济动因一文中对距离相似性（the iconicity of distance）描述为：The ling
32、uistic between expressions corresponds to the conceptual distance between them.（词句中语符之间的距离象似于它们所表示的概念距离。）,give sb. sth. 与 give sth. to sb. 的距离象似性give you a book give a book to youhelp sb. (to) do 结构与距离象似性He helped me finish the meal.He helped me to finish the meal.This medicine will help you to slee
33、p.,apple，treeapple treeapple trees语，文语文语和文,顺序象似性语言单位排列顺序象似于时间顺序和文化观念Jacobson (1965) ：The order of clauses corresponds in general to the order of events, as in “I came, I saw, I conquered.”(一般来说，分句的顺序象似于事件的顺序，例如：“我来，我看，我征服”。),59,英语的语序与汉语的语序常常是不对应的，这是由于英语的语序与实际生活中的时间顺序常是不对应的。例：他 从 成都 坐 火 车 经 遂宁 到 重庆。
34、He came to Chongqing from Chengdu through Suining by train. ,原型范畴（范畴，即划分类别。男人/女人,好/一般/差）,意象图式 认知语言学的核心原则为“现实 认知语言”，这是一个十分笼统的概括，其中的“认知”包括很多细微过程，我们可将其详述为： 现 实 互动体验 意象图式 范畴 概念 意义 语 言 从上图可见，意象图式是在互动体验的基础上形成的，它又是形成范畴、概念和意义的基础。因此意象图式在认知语言学中具有举足轻重的地位。,语言的突显观,语言的突显观认为，语言结构中信息的选择与安排是由信息的突出程度决定的。如：The car cra
35、shed into the tree. The tree was hit by the car.,台上坐着主席团。 主席团坐在台上。 笑声充满晚会。 晚会充满笑声。 The picture is above the blackboard. The blackboard is below the picture.,7. Language in Use,1. What is pragmatics?2. What is the relation between pragmatics and semantics?3. What is the difference between sentence me
36、aning and utterance meaning?4. What is the speech act theory?5. What is performative and constative?6. What is a locution, an illocution and a perlocution?7. What is the cooperative principle?,什么是语用学,语用学，即研究语言使用的学科。 语用学，研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则。 语用学，研究话语在使用中的语境意义，或话语在
37、特定语境条件下的交际意义，特别研究在不同的语言交际环境下如何准确地理解语言和恰当地运用语言。,语义学与语用学的联系和区别： 二者都是对意义的研究，但它们是在两个不同的层面上对意义进行的研究：语义学是对抽象语言能力的研究，语用学是对言语行为（即通过言语实施的行为，是说话人跟听话人对抽象的语言能力的运用）的研究。二者之间的差别大体上就是意义和用法之间的差别。然而不应该忘记言语行为是语言能力的具体体现。 因此我们赞成利奇采用的观点：“语义学和语用学是互不相同但又互相补充的研究领域。”,句子与话语 句子：是一个句法学、语义学的概念，是脱离语境条件的抽象的单位，多用于指抽象的语法结构或脱离语境条件的结构
38、组合，也就是说,它是按照一定的语法规则组合起来的、具有意义的语言单位，其意义就是词汇意义和语法意义的组合，在任何条件下它的意义都是恒定的。 话语：是一个语用学概念，话语就是特定语境条件中所使用的句子、词或词语，体现的是特定的语境意义。,言语行为理论 是英国约翰兰素奥斯汀1955年提出的。他认为：为了传递信息，人们需要使用话语，但话语并非都是为了传递字面意义或表达话语本身的语义信息，在很多时候说话人都是在“通过言辞行事”（doing things with words）。比如，实施许诺、发出警告或威胁、表示请求、表达命令、进行批评等。 在一定的语境条件下通过话语实施的行为，被称为“言语行为”（s
39、peech acts），是说话人跟听话人对抽象的语言能力的运用。,I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.I bequeath my match to my brother.I bet you six pences it will rain tomorrow.I promise to finish it in time.I apologize.I declare the meeting open.I warn you that the bull will charge.,Locutionary act （发话行为）,普通意义我们说话的时候，要移动发音器官，发出
40、按照一定方式组织起来，并被赋予了一定意义的声音。在这个意义上，当有人说“Morning！”时，我们可以问：“他做了什么？”，而不问“他说了什么？”。答案可以是他发出了一个声音，单词或者句子“Morning”。,Illocutionary act（行事行为）,我们说话时，不只是说出一些具有一定意义的语言单位，而且说明我们的说话目的，我们希望怎样被理解，也就是Austin说的具有一定的语力（force）。我们可以说“Morning！”有问候的语力，或者说，它应该被理解成问候。语力，或者叫行事语力（illocutionary force），像但与说话者意义、语境意义或附加意义，可以译成汉语的“言外之
41、意”。,Perlocutionary act（取效行为）,说话可以看成做事的第三种意义，涉及话语对听话人产生的效果。通过告诉听话人某事，说话人可以改变听话人对某件事的观点，或者误导他，让他惊奇，诱导他做某事，等等。不管这些效果是否符合说话人的本意，它们都可以看作说话人行为的一部分。,会话含义理论是美国哲学家格赖斯1967年在哈佛大学的威廉詹姆斯讲座上提出来的。格赖斯在讲座中区分了话语的自然意义和非自然意义。自然意义指话语本身表达的客观事实，而非自然意义指说话人要表达的意图，即主观的非实际的信息。指出说话人在说一句话的同时还流露出的别的隐含意思。也就是说在言语交流中说出X，命题意义为P，然而却隐
42、含Q。,会话含义，就是话语在会话中产生的隐含意义。 会话含义理论，是力图解释人们如何获得言外之意，也就是如何收获一句话的隐含意义的一种理论。,例如：丈夫对妻子说：“到做饭的时间了。”妻子回答“我很累。”丈夫的言外之意，可能是我饿了，或者是提醒妻子应该去做饭；妻子的言外之意可能是出门到外面去吃，或者是饭得由你来做。,男孩对女孩说：“你不带眼镜的时候很漂亮。”女孩：“我戴眼镜的时候一定很丑了。”男孩有理由否认他这样说了，但是他不能否认自己多少暗示了这一点。 Grice试图弄明白，人们是怎样传达没有明确说出来的涵义的。,格赖斯的合作原则是会话含义理论的基础。 “合作原则”的内容是：说人们在会话过程中头脑里会尽量保持某些标准，从而在遵循这些标准的基础上使交流顺利进行。,“合作”的概念是：会话参与者尽管是分别提供自己的话语，但总是在一定程度上意识到其中的某一些目的，至少是一个互相都能接受的话语发展方向；这一些目的或方向的达成可以说是在会话过程中共同维护和坚持当前的目的和方向形成的默契，也可以说是是会话参与者在交流过程中共同合作努力地结果。,格赖斯把合作原则具体分析成数量、质量、关系、方式四条准则：数量准则，指的是信息量要恰如其分，不多不少。质量准则，指的是说话要真实，要有根据。关系准则，指的是话语之间要有关联。方式准则，指的是说话要清楚，有条理，不要有歧义，不要罗嗦。,
