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1、Typical functions include,Defining/describingClassifying / categorising Giving examples Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differencesExpressing reasons and explanations / cause and effect,The thermostat controls the temperature. The thermostat is used for controlling the temperature. The f
2、unction of the thermostat is to control the temperature. The thermostat serves to (helps to) control the temperature. A thermostat is an instrument for controlling the temperature. A thermostat enables the researcher to measure the temperature accurately.,Tables and Diagrams,The writer does not simp
3、ly add the visual presentation to the text, but includes some sort of comment. Typically the writer will include (Swales & Feak, 1994):* a few words that locate the visual presentation, * a statement that draws attention to the important features of the visual presentation, * some sort of comment on
4、 or discussion of the visual presentation.,Table 3 compares the strengths and weaknesses of different methods. From the comparison, we can conclude that No one method is the best for all projects. Parkinson and Price-to-win methods are not suitable for organizations which aim to win more business. U
5、sing a combination of techniques may provide the best estimation. For example, combining top-down estimation with expert judgement and analogy methods may provide a superior result.,Describing change,Figure 1 shows the sales of mobile phones per month from the years 1998 to 2001. As can be seen, the
6、 sales of mobile phones declined slowly in the beginning months of 1998, then remained at a level of about 3000 from May until the end of the year. Entering into 1999, the sales first rose gradually, then with a steep increase at the end of the year, and reached a peak of 6,200 in February 2000. A s
7、harp fall followed but sales levelled off at about 5,300 per month from April, fluctuating slightly through the year, and are now increasing again. The figures seem to indicate that we have recovered from the problems in mid-2000 and are on target to improve on our February 2000 peak by the end of 2
8、002.,Classifying,-There are ? types/ kinds / classes / categories / sorts/varieties of ?:?.-? consists of/ comprises / can be divided into/ ? categories. These are acidic and basic.-? may be classified according to/on the basis of / depending on ?.,What is the text classifying? How many types are th
9、ere? What are the different types? How do we make the distinction?,The chemical elements in the earths crust are classified in two major groups - metals and nonmetals. Elements are classified as metallic or nonmetallic, according to their physical and chemical properties. Metals, for example, are us
10、ually good conductors of heat and electricity; nonmetals usually are not. Most metals are malleable; they can be hammered into flat sheets; nonmetals lack this quality. Some metals are also ductile; they can be drawn out into thin wires; nonmetals are not usually ductile. Metals usually have luster,
11、 and are able to reflect light. They also have a high density. Nonmetals usually do not exhibit these properties. A few elements, such as arsenic and antimony, exhibit both metallic and nonmetallic properties and are sometimes referred to as metalloids.,Fig. 1 “Waterfall” or Sequential Development M
12、ethod vs. Iterative Development Method,One of the most important reasons for the huge success of concurrent engineering is that by definition it redefines the basic design process structure that was based on a sequential design flow, sometimes called the Waterfall Model. Concurrent engineering signi
13、ficantly modifies this outdated method and instead opts to use what has been termed an iterative or integrated development method. The two design processes can be seen graphically in Figure 1. The Waterfall method moves in a completely linear fashion by starting with user requirements and sequential
14、ly moving forward to design, implementation and additional steps until you have a finished product. The problem here is that the design system does not look backwards or forwards from the step it is on to fix possible problems. In the case that something does go wrong, the design usually must be scr
15、apped or heavily altered. On the other hand, the iterative design process is more cyclic in that, as mentioned before, all aspects of the life cycle of the product are taken into account, allowing for a more evolutionary approach to design.,Transitional signals,Transitional words are cohesive ties t
16、o connect the sentences and paragraphs so that a piece of writing moves naturally and logically.,1. Time/orderat first, eventually, finally, first, firstly, in the end, in the first place, in the second place, lastly, later, next, second, secondly, to begin with2. Comparison/similar ideasin comparis
17、on, in the same way, similarly, in contrast with3. Contrast/opposite ideasbut, despite, in spite of, even so, however, in contrast, in spite of this, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, whereas, yet, in contrast to,4. Cause and effectaccordingly, as a consequence, as a result, b
18、ecause, because of this, consequently, for this reason, hence, in consequence, in order to, owing to this, since, so, so that, therefore, thus, for all the above reasons5. Examplesfor example, for instance, such as, thus, as follows6 Generalizationas a rule, generally, in general, normally, on the w
19、hole, in most cases, usually7. Stating the obviousnessafter all, as one might expect, clearly, it goes without saying, naturally, obviously, of course, surely, in fact,8. Attitudeadmittedly, certainly, fortunately, luckily, oddly enough, strangely enough, undoubtedly, unfortunately9. Summary/conclus
20、ionfinally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, overall, so, then, to conclude, to sum up, in a nutshell10. Explanation/equivalencein other words, namely, or rather, that is to say, this means, to be more precise, to put it another way, specifically, to be more specific11. Additionapart from this, as
21、 well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, nor, not only.but also, too, what is more,12. Conditionin that case, then, given13. Supportactually, as a matter of fact, in fact, indeed14. Contradictionactually, as a matter of fact, in fact15. Emphasischiefly, especially, in detail, in partic
22、ular, mainly, notably, particularly,Paragraphs,For many years, project managers have relied on experience and the prevailing industry norms as a basis to develop cost estimate. However, basing estimates on expert judgment is problematic: This approach is not repeatable and the means of deriving an e
23、stimate are not explicit. It is difficult to find highly experienced estimators for every new project. The relationship between cost and system size is not linear. Cost tends to increase exponentially with size. The expert judgment method is appropriate only when the sizes of the current project and
24、 past projects are similar. Budget manipulations by management aimed at avoiding overrun make experience and data from previous projects questionable.,Software cost estimation historically has been a major difficulty in software development. Several reasons for the difficulty have been identified: L
25、ack of a historical database of cost measurement Software development involving many interrelated factors, which affect development effort and productivity, and whose relationships are not well understood Lack of trained estimators and estimators with the necessary expertise Little penalty is often
26、associated with a poor estimate,A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal elements and summary elements comprise the work breakdown structure of the
27、 project. Some Gantt charts also show the dependency (i.e. precedence network) relationships between activities. Gantt charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-complete shadings and a vertical TODAY line as shown here.Although now regarded as a common charting technique, Gant
28、t charts were considered revolutionary when they were introduced. In recognition of Henry Gantts contributions, the Henry Laurence Gantt Medal is awarded for distinguished achievement in management and in community service. This chart is used also in Information Technology to represent data that has
29、 been collected.,Gantt charts have become a common technique for representing the phases and activities of a project work breakdown structure (WBS), so they can be understood by a wide audience.Although a Gantt chart is useful and valuable for small projects that fit on a single sheet or screen, it
30、may become quite unwieldy for projects with more than about 30 activities. Larger Gantt charts may not be suitable for most computer displays. A related criticism is that Gantt charts communicate relatively little information per unit area of display. That is, projects are often considerably more co
31、mplex than can be communicated effectively with a Gantt chart.,Although project management software can show schedule dependencies as lines between activities, displaying a large number of dependencies may result in a cluttered or unreadable chart.,Gantt charts only represent part of the triple cons
32、traints (cost, time and scope) of projects, because they focus primarily on schedule management. Moreover, Gantt charts do not represent the size of a project or the relative size of work elements, therefore the magnitude of a behind-schedule condition is easily misconcepted. If two projects are the
33、 same number of days behind schedule, the larger project has a larger impact on resource utilization, yet the Gantt does not represent this difference.,The method of constructing the network is important for the application of other complex planning technologies such as PERT and CPM.,Project Network
34、sProject networks consists of a number of nodes and a number of arcs. There are two alternatives for presenting project networks.Activity-on-arc (AOA): Each activity is presented as an arc. A node is used to separate an activity from each of its immediate predecessors.Activity-on-node (AON): Each ac
35、tivity is represented by a node. The arcs are used to show the precedence relationships.,AON vs. AOAAON are considerably easier to construct than AOA.AON are easier to understand than AOA for inexperienced users.AON are easier to revise than AOA when there are changes in the network.,The critical pa
36、th method (CPM) or critical path analysis, is a mathematically based algorithm for scheduling a set of project activities. It is an important tool for effective project management.,The Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique, commonly abbreviated as PERT, is a model for project manageme
37、nt designed to analyze and represent the tasks involved in completing a given project. It is commonly used in conjunction with the critical path method or CPM.,PERT was developed primarily to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and complex projects. It was developed in 1957 to support the
38、U.S. Navys Polaris nuclear submarine project. It was able to incorporate uncertainty by making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing precisely the details and durations of all the activities. It is more of an event-oriented technique rather than start- and completion-oriented, and is u
39、sed more in projects where time, rather than cost, is the major factor. This project model was the first of its kind, a revival for scientific management, founded by Frederick Taylor and later refined by Henry Ford. DuPont corporations critical path method was invented at roughly the same time as PE
40、RT.,In the following example there are seven tasks, labeled A through G. Some tasks can be done concurrently (A and B) while others cannot be done until their predecessor task is complete (C cannot begin until A is complete). Additionally, each task has three time estimates: the optimistic time esti
41、mate (O), the most likely or normal time estimate (M), and the pessimistic time estimate (P). The expected time (TE) is computed using the formula (O + 4M + P) 6.,39,A PERT chart is a tool that facilitates decision makingDuring project execution, however, a real-life project will never execute exact
42、ly as it was planned due to uncertainty. It can be ambiguity resulting from subjective estimates that are prone to human errors or it can be variability arising from unexpected events or risks. And Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) may provide inaccurate information about the project completion time for uncertainty. This inaccuracy is large enough to render such estimates as not helpful.,
