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1、英文原始资料翻译：1.英文原始资料An actively controlled fuel cell/battery hybrid to meet pulsed power demandsAbstractThis paper presents the experimental results of an actively controlled fuel cell/battery hybrid power source topology that can be widely used in many applications, such as portable electronic devices
2、, communication equipment, spacecraft power systems, and electric vehicles,in which the power demand is impulsive rather than constant. A step-down DC/DC power converter is incorporated to actively control the power flow between the fuel cell and the battery to achieve both high power and high energ
3、y densities. The results show that the hybrid power source can achieve much greater specific power and power density than the fuel cell alone. This paper first demonstrates that an actively controlled hybrid with a 35Whydrogen-fueled polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell and a lithium-ion battery p
4、ack of six cells yielded a peak power of 100W, about three times as high as the fuel cell alone can supply, while causing a very limited (10%) weight increase to the whole system. After that, another hybrid source using a different battery array (eight cells) was investigated to further validate the
5、 control strategy and to show the flexibility and generality of the hybrid source design. The experimental data show that the hybrid source using an eight-cell battery supplied a peak power of 135W, about four times that of the fuel cell alone. Finally, three power sources including the fuel cell al
6、one and the two hybrids studied were compared in terms of specific power, power density, volume, weight, etc. The design presented here can be scaled to larger or smaller power capacities for a variety of applications. 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.Keywords: Hybrid power source; Lithium-ion
7、 battery; Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell; Power converter1. IntroductionMany applications, such as portable electronic devices,communication equipment, spacecraft power systems, and electric vehicles, have a common characteristic in their load profiles. That is, they have a high ratio of pea
8、k power to average power. Fuel cells (e.g. PEM fuel cells) are considered to be the most promising alternatives among next generation energy devices due to their high energy density and clean energy 1,2. However, limited by their inherent characteristics, fuel cells have a long start-up time (usuall
9、y several minutes) and poor response to instantaneous power demands. Compared with fuel cells, lithium rechargeable batteries have a rapid transient response without any warm up or start up time, and their specific power capability is also much higher than that of fuel cells. Combining fuel cells wi
10、th batteries yields hybrid power sources that make the best use of the advantages of each individual device and may meet the requirements for the above mentioned applications regarding both high power and high energy densities3,4. In such a hybrid fuel cell/battery power source, the fuel cell is con
11、trolled to satisfy load average power requirements over a long term; the battery, on the other hand, is used to serve high pulse power requirements in short intervals.Clearly, the load time-averaged power should be less than or equal to the fuel cell rated power capability, otherwise the battery wil
12、l eventually become exhausted.This paper mainly presents the experimental study of an actively controlled fuel cell/battery hybrid serving a pulse load. In contrast to a passive hybrid, where the fuel cell is connected directly in parallel with the battery, an active hybrid has several potential adv
13、antages. Consider the structure of the active hybrid shown in Fig. 1, a DC/DC power converter is incorporated between the fuel cell and the battery so that the power flow can be actively managed. In this configuration,the fuel cell is isolated from the pulse load through the power converter, while t
14、he battery is not. By controlling the power converter, the fuel cell output current, the battery current and the battery voltage all can be regulated.The operating principle of the hybrid power source that is the focus of this study is described as follows: during periodsof low power demand, the fue
15、l cell will be controlled to generate an average power that is sufficient to serve the load and at the same time to charge the battery; during periods of high power demand, the fuel cell will generate the rated power and the battery will be discharged at any rate (up to the safe limit) necessary to
16、satisfy the high power requirements. Two configurations of hybrid power sources were tested in this study. Both configurations used the same fuel cell, power converter and control algorithm; the only difference between them was the battery array size. The study results show that such fuel cell/batte
17、ry hybrid power sources achieved much greater specific power than the fuel cell alone. The first hybrid power source studied, which used a six-cell battery, demonstrated a 100W peak power capability, which is three times that of the fuel cell alone. The second hybrid power source studied, which used
18、 an eight-cell battery, achieved a higher peak power of 135W. Besides the advantage of providing higher specific power, the active hybrids offered advantages of a broader range and better regulation of the output voltage, a smaller fuel cell stress, a smaller weight and volume (for a fixed peak powe
19、r capability) of the system,and faster response at startup and during step changes of power demand. In the following section, the system experimental setup is detailed. Section 3 then describes the experimental tests of two configurations of active hybrids, and compares the hybrid power sources to t
20、he fuel cell alone with attention to the specific power, power density, and power source volume and weight. Finally, the conclusions are given in Section 4. The experimental system of the active fuel cell/ batteryhybrid, illustrated above in Fig. 1, was built using a hydrogen-fueled polymer electrol
21、yte membrane fuel cellmanufactured by H-Power with a nominal power capacity of 35W and nominal 24V open-circuit voltage, and Sony US18650 lithium-ion batteries with a nominal capacity of 1400 mAh per cell. A step-down DC/DC power converter was constructed using a synchronous rectifier, as shown in F
22、ig. 2. Two MOSFETs were adopted in this construction and were operated synchronously and complementarily. Using an active switch instead of a passive diode decreases the conductance loss dramatically and thus improves the converter efficiency; therefore, this topology is more and more commonly adopt
23、ed in low-voltage power supplies. A real-time digital controller (dSPACE DC1103PPC controller board) was used to control the DC/DC converter. In the experiment, the control algorithm was first developed in Matlab/ Simulink and then compiled and downloaded to the dSPACE hardware. The battery current
24、and voltage and the fuel cell current were monitored and input into the dSPACE controller board through its A/D converters. The real-time controller provided the switch duty commands to the power converter.Fig. 3 shows a photograph of the hybrid system. Note that the power converter was constructed
25、for general testing purpose and its volume can be decreased dramatically in industrial production. A programmable electronic load (not shown in the picture) was used to generate a pulse current load profile. Some specifications of the experimental system are listed in Table 1. Two different battery
26、packs were adopted in this study: one had a total of six cells with three cells in series and two such strings in parallel; the other used eight cells with four cells in series and two strings in parallel.By adjusting the duty cycle of the power converter, the fuel cell output current, the battery c
27、urrent and the voltage can be regulated. For such a system, the following are primary considerations: the battery voltage should be regulated to prevent battery pack over charging or over discharging; the battery charging current should be limited to less than the safe maximum; and the fuel cell cur
28、rent should be adjusted to supply appropriate power to the load or to charge the battery as well as be limited to its safe maximum. Therefore, these three parameters including the fuel cell current, the battery voltage and the battery current can be sampled and used as the system regulation indices.
29、 As a result three system regulation modes are defined: constant battery voltage (CBV), constant battery current (CBC), and constant fuel cell current (CFCC). If the battery voltage exceeds the reference voltage, which may correspond to the condition of no load or light load as well as high battery
30、state of charge, CBV mode applies. Under this mode, the output current of the fuel cell and the charging current of the battery should be below the rated currents. If the battery voltage is below the reference voltage, which may correspond to the condition of heavy load or light load as well as low
31、battery state of charge, CFCC mode or CBC mode may apply depending on the load. If the current demand is lower than the rated output current of the fuel cell, the charging current of the battery may need to be regulated in order to protect the battery, i.e. CBC mode applies. In this case, the fuel c
32、ell current is unregulated but is always below the rated current. If the current demand is very high, CFCC mode applies. In this case, the battery may be discharged or charged at a lower rate.The control strategy was implemented in Matlab/Simulink and tested under the pulsed-current load condition.
33、In the experiments, the Simulink code of the control algorithm was compiled and downloaded to the dSPACE platform to control the real hardware. More details on the control design and implementation are described in 5.3. Experimental results and discussion3.1. Power enhancement of active hybridThe fo
34、llowing experimental study demonstrates the power enhancement capability of an actively controlled hybrid compared to a fuel cell alone. In this experiment, the actively controlled hybrid power source used a six-celllithium-ion battery with three cells in series and two strings in parallel. The batt
35、ery pack initial voltage was 11.5V and the charging current was limited to 2.0A for battery safety considerations (roughly a 1C charge rate for each cell). The maximum battery pack discharge current, which is mainly determined by the battery cell internal construction, was set at 8.0A here, correspo
36、nding to 4.0A per cell. A pulse current load was specified with the current profile shown in Fig. 4. The period of the load was 20 s with 3 s high pulse current at 12A and 17 s low current demand at 0.5 A. The rated power of the fuel cell is 35W, which corresponds to 2.0A current with the fuel cell
37、terminal voltage about 17.5V.In the experiment, during periods of low power demand, the fuel cell was controlled to generate an average power that was sufficient to serve the load and at the same time to charge the battery; during periods of high power demand, the fuel cell was controlled to generat
38、e the rated power and the battery was discharged to satisfy the extra power requirements that exceeded the fuel cell capability. Eq. (1) describes power conservation in the hybrid system: the net power generated by the fuel cell equals the battery charging/discharging power plus the load consumption
39、. where vFC and iFC are the fuel cell terminal voltage and the output current, Conv is the power converter efficiency which is estimated here at a constant value of 92% to simplify the analysis, vBatt and iBatt are the battery pack terminal voltage and the input current, and iLoad is the load curren
40、t. When the pulse load requirement is low (0.2 A), the total power requirement of the load and the battery charging is estimated in Eq. (2) in which the load power is about 2.4W and battery charging power is about 24W. The maximum net power that can be supplied by the fuel cell and the power convert
41、er pair is calculated in Eq. (3), and it is larger than the total power requirements of the load and the battery. Therefore, the hybrid system will operate in CBC mode. where PLow is the total power requirement during the low level of load profile, and PMFC is the maximum net power of the fuel cell
42、and the power converter pairWhen the pulse load requirement is high (12 A), clearly the load power requirement is much higher than the fuel cell rated power; therefore, the fuel cell is controlled to supply the rated power and the battery then supplies the extra power requirement. At this time, the
43、battery pack discharge current is very high and the battery terminal voltage drops heavily. During this time period, the hybrid system will operate in CFCC mode.Figs. 5 and 6 show current and voltage waveforms of the fuel cell and the battery during a 300 s experiment. From Fig. 5, it can be seen th
44、at, when the load drew low power, the fuel cell current was about 1.55 A, supplying 0.2A current to the load and at the same time charging the battery at 2.0 A; therefore, the hybrid system worked in CBC mode. When the load drew high power, the fuel cell current was raised to 2.0 A, corresponding to
45、 its rated power capability. At the same time, the battery was discharged and its current jumped to about 8.2 A. During the high power demand periods, the system worked in CFCC mode. In Fig. 6, the fuel cell voltage was at about 18.8V during periods of low power demand, and dropped to 18.0V during p
46、eriods of high power demand. The battery pack voltage was held at about 12V when the load was light, and decreased to about 9V when the load was heavy.From the experimental results, it can be seen that the designed control algorithm worked well, and such a hybrid source, using a 35W PEM fuel cell an
47、d a lithium-ion battery pack of six Sony US18650 cells, yielded a peak power of 100W, about three times as high as the fuel cell alone can supply3.2. Design flexibility and control generalityIn this part, another hybrid source using an eight-cell lithium ion battery was tested to further validate th
48、e system control and to demonstrate the flexibility and generality of the hybrid power source designOne important advantage of incorporating a power converter between the fuel cell and the battery pack is that the battery pack voltage can be different from the fuel cell voltage; therefore, it allows
49、 a broader range of the outputvoltage and provides more flexibility for power source design. After the study of the hybrid source using six cells of battery in the previous section, we increased the battery cells to eight and repeated the pulse current test using the same fuel cell, power converter, and control strategy. The previous specified pulse current profile was also adopted, except that the high current deman
