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1、 外文出处：The Evolution of Project ManagementThe Evolution of Project ManagementBy Sandro Azzopardi Importance of Project Management is an important topic because all organisations, be they small or large, at one time or other, are involved in implementing new undertakings. These undertakings may be div
2、erse, such as, the development of a new product or service; theestablishment of a new production line in a manufacturing enterprise; a public relationspromotion campaign; or a major building programme. Whilst the 1980s were about quality and the 1990s were all about globalisation, the 2000s are abou
3、t velocity. That is, to keep ahead of their competitors, organisations are continually faced with the development of complex products, services and processes with very short time-to-market windows combined with the need for cross-functional expertise. In this scenario, project management becomes a v
4、ery important and powerful tool in the hands of organisations that understand its use and have the competencies to apply it. The development of project management capabilities in organisations, simultaneously with the application of information management systems, allow enterprise teams to work in p
5、artnership in defining plans and managing take-to-market projects by synchronising team-oriented tasks, schedules, and resource allocations. This allows cross-functional teams to create and share project information. However, this is not sufficient, information management systems have the potential
6、to allow project management practices to take place in a real-time environment. As a consequence of this potential project management proficiency, locally, nationally or globally dispersed users are able to concurrently view and interact with the same updated project information immediately, includi
7、ng project schedules, threaded discussions, and other relevant documentation. In this scenario the term dispersed user takes on a wider meaning. It not only includes the cross-functional management teams but also experts drawn from the organisations supply chain, and business partners. On a macro le
8、vel organisations are motivated to implement project management techniques to ensure that their undertakings (small or major) are delivered on time, within the cost budget and to the stipulated quality. On a micro level, project management combined with an appropriate information management system h
9、as the objectives of: (a) reducing project overhead costs; (b) customising the project workplace to fit the operational style of the project teams and respective team members; (c) proactively informing the executive management strata of the strategic projects on a real-time basis; (d) ensuring that
10、project team members share accurate, meaningful and timely project documents; and (e) ensuring that critical task deadlines are met. Whilst the motivation and objectives to apply project management in organisations is commendable, they do not assure project success. However, before discussing the me
11、aning and achievement of project success it is appropriate at this stage to provide a brief history of project management. Brief History of Project Management Project management has been practiced for thousands of years dating back to the Egyptian epoch, but it was in the mid-1950s that organisation
12、s commenced applying formal project management tools and techniques to complex projects. Modern project management methods had their origins in two parallel but different problems of planning and control in projects in the United States. The first case involved the U.S Navy, which at that time was c
13、oncerned with the control of contracts for its Polaris Missile project. These contracts consisted of research, development work and manufacturing of parts that were unique and had never been previously undertaken. This particular project was characterised by high uncertainty, since neither cost nor
14、time could be accurately estimated. Hence, completion times were based on probabilities. Time estimates were based on optimistic, pessimistic and most likely. These three time scenarios were mathematically assessed to determine the probable completion date. This procedure The Evolution of Project Ma
15、nagement 2 was called program evaluation review technique (PERT). Initially, the PERT technique did not take into consideration cost. However, the cost feature was later included using the same estimating approach as with time. Due to the three estimation scenarios, PERT was found (and still is) to
16、be best suited for projects with a high degree of uncertainty reflecting their level of uniqueness. The second case, involved the private sector, namely, E.I du Pont de Nemours Company, which had undertaken to construct major chemical plants in U.S. Unlike the Navy Polaris project, these constructio
17、n undertakings required accurate time and cost estimates. The methodology developed by this company was originally referred to as project planning and scheduling (PPS). PPS required realistic estimates of cost and time, and is thus a more definitive approach than PERT. The PPS technique was later de
18、veloped into the critical path method (CPM) that became very popular with the construction industry. During the 1960s and 1970s, both PERT and CPM increased their popularity within the private and public sectors. Defence Departments of various countries, NASA, and large engineering and construction
19、companies world wide applied project management principles and tools to manage large budget, schedule-driven projects. The popularity in the use of these project management tools during this period coincided with the development of computers and the associated packages that specialised in project ma
20、nagement. However, initially these computer packages were very costly and were executed only on mainframe or mini computers. The use of project management techniques in the 1980s was facilitated with the advent of the personal computer and associated low cost project management software. Hence, duri
21、ng this period, the manufacturing and software development sectors commenced to adopt and implement sophisticated project management practices as well. By the 1990s, project management theories, tools and techniques were widely received by different industries and organisations. Four periods in the
22、development of modern project management. 1 Prior to 1958: Craft system to human relations. During this time, the evolution of technology, such as, automobiles and telecommunications shortened the project schedule. For instance, automobiles allowed effective resource allocation and mobility, whilst
23、the telecommunication system increased the speed of communication. Furthermore, the job specification which later became the basis of developing the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) was widely used and Henry Gantt invented the Gantt chart. Examples of projects undertaken during this period as supporte
24、d by documented evidence include: (a) Building the Pacific Railroad in 1850s; (b) Construction of the Hoover Dam in 1931-1936, that employed approximately 5,200 workers and is still one of the highest gravity dams in the U.S. generating about four billion kilowatt hours a year; and (c) The Manhattan
25、 Project in 1942-1945 that was the pioneer research and development project for producing the atomic bomb, involving 125,000 workers and costing nearly $2 billion. 2 1958-1979: Application of Management Science. Significant technology advancement took place between 1958 and 1979, such as, the first
26、automatic plain-paper copier by Xerox in 1959. Between 1956 and 1958 several core project management tools including CPM and PERT were introduced. However, this period was characterised by the rapid development of computer technology. The progression from the mainframe to the mini-computer in the 19
27、70s made computers affordable to medium size companies. In 1975, Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft. Furthermore, the evolution of computer technology facilitated the emergence of several project management software companies, including, Artemis (1977), Oracle (1977), and Scitor Corporation
28、 (1979). In the 1970s other project management tools such as Material Requirements Planning (MRP) were also introduced. Examples of projects undertaken during this period and which influenced the development of modem project management as we know it today include: (a) Polaris missile project initiat
29、ed in 1956 that had the objective of delivering nuclear missiles carried by submarines, known as Fleet Ballistic Missile for the U.S Navy. The project successfully launched its first Polaris missile in 1961; (b) Apollo project initiated in 1960 with the objective of sending man to the moon; and (c)
30、E.I du Pont de Nemours chemical plant project commencing in 1958, that had the objective of building major chemical production plants across the U.S. The Evolution of Project Management 3 3 1980-1994: Production Centre Human Resources. The 1980s and 1990s are characterised by the revolutionary devel
31、opment in the information management sector with the introduction of the personal computer (PC) and associated computer communications networking facilities. This development resulted in having low cost multitasking PCs that had high efficiency in managing and controlling complex project schedules.
32、During this period low cost project management software for PCs became widely available that made project management techniques more easily accessible. Examples of major projects undertaken during this period that illustrate the application of high technology, and project management tools and practi
33、ces include: (a) England France Channel project, 1989 to1991. This project was an international project that involved two governments, several financial institutions, engineering construction companies, and other various organisations from the two countries. The language, use of standard metrics, an
34、d other communication differences needed to be closely coordinated; (b) Space Shuttle Challenger project, 1983 to 1986. The disaster of the Challenger space shuttle focused attention on risk management, group dynamics, and quality management; and (c) xv Calgary Winter Olympic of 1988, which successf
35、ully applied project management practices to event management. 4 1995-Present: Creating a New Environment. This period is dominated by the developments related to the Internet that changed dramatically business practices in the mid 1990s. The Internet has provided fast, interactive, and customised n
36、ew medium that allows people to browse, purchase, and track products and services online instantly. This has resulted in making firms more productive, more efficient, and more client oriented. Furthermore, many of todays project management software have an Internet connectivity feature. This allows
37、automatic uploading of data so that anyone around the globe with a standard browser can: (a) input the most recent status of their assigned tasks; (b) find out how the overall project is doing; (c) be informed of any delays or advances in the schedule, while working independently at a remote site. A
38、n example of a major project undertaken during this period is the Year 2000 (Y2K) project.The Y2K Project, known as the millennium bug referred to the problem that computers may not function correctly on January lst, 2000 at 12 AM. This was a global phenomenon and was highly problematic because reso
39、lving the problem at ones organisation did not guarantee immunity, since a breakdown in the organisations supply chain could affect the organisations operating capability. Many organisations set up a project office to control and comply with their stakeholders regarding the Y2K issue. Furthermore, u
40、se of the Internet was common practice that led to the establishment of the virtual project office. The goal of this virtual project office was: (a) to deliver uninterrupted turn-of-the-century; (b) monitor Y2K project efforts; (c) provide coordination; (d) develop a risk management plan; and (e) co
41、mmunicate Y2K compliance efforts with various stakeholders. Thus, the virtual project office was a focal point for all the project works, and it increased the awareness and importance of risk management practices to numerous organisations. Why Project Management? There is no doubt that organisations
42、 today face more aggressive competition than in the past and the business environment they operate in is a highly turbulent one. It should be emphasised that the causes for the failure to deliver on time, on budget and to the quality of performance expected could be addressed by the application of p
43、roject management practices. Furthermore, the failure to deliver on time, on budget and to the quality of performance expected does not necessarily mean that the project was itself a failure. At this stage what is being discussed is the effectiveness and efficiency of project execution and not wheth
44、er a project is a success or failure. Conclusion Project management should be viewed as a tool that helps organisations to execute designated projects effectively and efficiently. The use of this tool does not automatically guarantee project success. (project success will be discussed in a subsequen
45、t issue). However, in preparation for the next issue, I would like you to think about the distinction between project success and project management success. This distinction will provide further insight to the questions: Why are some projects perceived as failures when they have met all the traditi
46、onal standards of success, namely, completed on time, completed within budget, and meeting all the technical specifications? Why are some projects perceived to be successful when they have failed to meet two important criteria that are traditionally associated with success, namely, not completed on
47、time and not completed within budget? Sandro Azzopardi is a professional author who writes articles on various subjects on his web site and local newspapers and magazines. You can visit information about this article and others on The Info Pit 项目管理的演变 桑德罗阿泽帕迪 项目管理的重要性，是一个重要的课题，因为所有的组织，无论是或大或小，在同一时间或
48、其他参与实施新的事业。这些事业可能是多种多样的，例如，开发一个新产品或服务；建立一个新的生产线；在制造企业公共关系推广活动或重大建设方案。 80年代有关质量； 90年代关于全球化，二十一世纪关于速度。也就是说，要保持领先其竞争对手，组织不断面临发展复杂的产品，服务和进程在很短的时间与市场的窗口相结合还有跨职能专业知识的需要。在这种情况下，项目管理成为在了解它的使用者手中的非常重要和强大的工具。在组织发展中的项目管理能力，同时与信息管理系统的应用，使企业团队工作定义计划和管理团队同步。考虑到市场项目的合作伙伴面向的任务，时间安排和资源分配。这允许跨职能团队创建和共享项目信息。然而，这是不够的，信
49、息管理系统有可能使项目管理者根据地方环境采取实时管理方案。在当地，由于这种潜在的项目管理能力，使国家或分散在全球各地的用户能够同时查看和具有相同互动；立即更新的项目信息的能力，包括项目进度，主题讨论，和其他有关文件。在这种情况下，长期分散的用户需要有更广泛的意义。它不仅仅包括跨职能的管理团队。专家们还定义组织的供应链和业务合作伙伴。在宏观层面上组织积极实施项目管理技术以确保他们的事业（小的或主要的）在成本预算范围内按时交付，并保证规定的质量。在微观层面上，与项目管理相结合信息管理系统的目标是：（一）减少项目间接费用；（二）自定义项目的工作场所，以适应项目团队和各自的团队成员的运作风格；（三）主动通知执行管理；（四）确保项目团队成员实时的基础的战略项目分享准确，有意义和及时的项目文件及确保关键任务完成最后期限。虽然应用项目管理的动机和目标组织是值得称赞的，他们不保证项目的成功。然而，在讨论的意义和实现项目的成功，它是适当的在这个阶段，提供了项目管理的简要历史。项目管理简史：项目管理已实行多年，历史可以追溯到埃及数千年前，但它是在1950年中期，某项目组织正式开始申请管理工具和技术复杂的项目。现代项目管
