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1、Only two things are infinite,the universe and human stupidity,and Im not sure about the former._ Albert Einstein 只有两件事是无限的：宇宙与人的愚蠢。对于前者，我还不能确定。,Albert Einstein,physicist(1879-1955),English Rhetoric:chapter 2,Ancient Greek Rhetoricians,Sophists,Corax/Tisias/Gorgias,Socrates,Isocrates,Plato,Aristotle,
2、skrti:z,pleitu,risttl,希腊人将人类赞颂为宇宙中最了不起的创造物。他们拒不屈从于祭司或暴君的指令。他们的态度基本上是世俗和理性主义的；他们高扬自由探索的精神，使知识高于信仰。由于这些原因，他们的文化发展到了古代世界所能达到的最高阶段。古希腊时期，雄辩术高度发达，无论是法庭里、广场中，还是公民大会上，经常有经验丰富的演说家进行论辩。听众的要求很高，演说者的每一个不适当的用词，每一个难看的手势和动作，都会引来讥讽和嘲笑。在学术界以及各种公民大会上，任何公民都能够参与辩论，就某项行动方针向大会陈述利弊。图中描述的是梭伦改革前贵族大辩论的场景.,好辩论的希腊人,Sophists a
3、nd their practices of rhetoric,Out of the growing demand for education in the fifth century B.C.,Greece called into existence a class of teachers known as sophists.General knowledge about sophists:Sophists were a professional class rather than a school(学派，流派）.And they are not philosophers.They were
4、in fact the first in Greece to take fees for teaching wisdom.They taught any subject for which there was a popular demand.(Rhetoric,politics,grammar,etymology,history,physics and mathematics)Protagoras(普罗塔哥拉),is named as the first Sophist;after him the most important are Gorgias(高尔吉亚),Prodicus(普洛狄柯)
5、,and Hippias(希庇亚斯).prutrs:dis(公元前 483前375，古希腊哲学家、修辞学家)Hippias hipis,“智者们就是希腊的教师，通过他们，文化才开始在希腊出现”。-黑格尔公元前5世纪是希腊奴隶民主制繁荣的时代在公民会议和陪审法庭上，人们常常要发表意见，要和自己的对手辩论，雅典法庭规定每个公民须替自己辩护，不许旁人代辩。由于社会的需要，出现了一批“教授智慧的教师”即“智者”。他们向人传授说话的艺术修辞学，争辩的艺术雄辩术，据理论证的艺术辩证法。智者们是古希腊最早的一批职业教育家和哲学家，他们周游希腊各城邦，招收学生传播知识，同时接受他们的报酬。他们不像重视自然界，
6、重视万物从何开始的问题，他们的哲学研究的中心是人与人之间的关系问题，换句话说，他们注意的是社会政治和伦理方面的问题。苗田力古希腊哲学、“智者”在 智者,西方哲学史上有特指，活跃于前苏格拉底时期，在城邦中教授他人辩论，以打赢官司等，比如普罗泰格拉、高尔吉亚等，被苏格拉底反对。,Most of these sophists are known today primarily through the writings of their opponents(specifically Plato and Aristotle),which makes it difficult to assemble an
7、 unbiased view of their practices and beliefs.The sophists rhetorical techniques were extremely useful for any young nobleman looking for public office.The historical context in which the Sophists operated provides evidence for their considerable influence,as Athens became more and more democratic d
8、uring the period in which the Sophists were most active.The Sophists certainly were not directly responsible for Athenian democracy,but their cultural and psychological contributions played an important role in its growth.In addition,Sophists had great impact on the early development of law,as the s
9、ophists were the first lawyers in the world.Their status as lawyers was a result of their extremely developed argumentation skills.,Significance,Consequently,the sophists undertook to provide a stock of arguments on any subject,or to prove any position.They boasted of their ability to make the worse
10、 appear the better reason,to prove that black is white.Some,like Gorgias,asserted that it was not necessary to have any knowledge of a subject to give satisfactory replies as regards it.The sophists tried to entangle,entrap,and confuse their opponents,and even,this were not possible,to beat them dow
11、n by mere violence and noise.They sought also to dazzle by means of strange or flowery metaphors,by being clever and smart,rather than earnest and truthful.,Why are called“诡辩士”？,公元前390年，伊索克拉底改变了智者传统的巡游讲学的方式，创办了一所修辞学校。这所学校与公元前387年柏拉图创办的学院一起成为雅典最早的高等学府。,纵观社会发展至今，西方修辞有着其自身的走向和变化，拓宽了修辞学的学科范围。在西方修辞学史上有着古
12、典修辞学，中世纪修辞学，文艺复兴修辞学，18世纪修辞学，19世纪修辞学，现代修辞学，和后现代修辞学，不同时期有不同的历史发展和特征他们都存在着各自的学术内容为我们做深入的研究。古典西方修辞学的起讫时间大约从公元前500年至公元400年，即古希腊古罗马欧洲古典文化极其辉煌，灿烂的时期，西方修辞学的起源在西方学术界也有着分歧，较为赞同的观点是克拉克斯（Corax）和提西阿斯（Tisias）是修辞学的创始人，然而根据记载，亚里士多德认为克拉克里是最早编写修辞学课本的人。后世学者们认为克拉克斯和提西阿斯是古希腊修辞学的创始人，被视为西方的“修辞学之父”。西方许多学者继承和发展了修辞学，著名的修辞学家有
13、克拉克、谱罗塔歌拉斯（Protagoras）、高尔吉亚(Gorgias)、柏拉图(Plato)、苏格拉底(Socrates)、伊索克拉底(Isocrates)、亚里士多德(Aristotle)，其中由亚里士多德最为著名。在修辞理论的探索方面，亚里士多德对修辞学所下的定义是：修辞学是一门发现适用于任何主题的劝说方式的艺术。现今的古典修辞学其实就是亚里士多德的理论体系以及西塞罗和昆提利安对这一理论体系的进一步发挥。他们完成了西方修辞学的第一个时期的发展古典修辞学。这一时期的修辞学的主要特点是口头的，劝说性的，古典修辞学主要把修辞应用于法庭辩论和政治演讲。由此可知，传统修辞学以“演讲术”为主导、单向
14、“劝服”为次等。,Corax,along with Tisias,was one of the founders of ancient Greek rhetoric.It has sometimes been asserted that they are merely legendary personages.Other scholars contend that Corax and Tisias were the same person,described in one fragment as Tisias,the Crow(corax is the ancient Greek term f
15、or crow).Corax is said to have lived in Sicily in the 5th century BC.During his time,the tyrant of Syracuse was overthrown and a democracy formed.Under the despot,the land and property of many common citizens had been seized;these people flooded the courts in an attempt to recover their property.Cor
16、ax devised an art of rhetoric to permit ordinary men to make their cases in the courts.Corax was generally thought to have composed the first written rhetoric to help these Sicilian landowners win title to their disputed property.,sairkju:z,Corax and Tisias(克拉克斯和提西阿斯）,The work includes two items tha
17、t are significant for the later development of rhetorical theory.1.The first is the theory of how arguments should be developed from probalilities-which was to be more fully developed by Aristotle a century later.2.The second is their first concept of organization of a message.According to Corax,leg
18、al arguments should consist of four parts:introductory,explanation,argumentation anc conclusion.This proposal of four divisions of legal arguments was later inherited by Aristotle and were later stretched to six by Cicero.,Corax and Tisias(克拉克斯和提西阿斯）,His pupil,Tisias,is said to have developed legal
19、rhetoric further,and he may have been the teacher of Isocrates.All we know of the work of Corax is from references made by later writers,such as Plato,Aristotle,and Cicero.No writings of either Tisias or Corax have survived,although by some accounts Tisias was the teacher of Isocrates.,文明的辩论与法律诉讼程序是
20、民主实践的核心价值，此木刻画作描绘的是雅典最高法院的古希腊形式法庭。,Some believe that the story is only a legend,observing that Corax means“crow”and Tisias means“raven”two birds that are often identified interchangably.The famous but apocryphal story of how Tisias tried to cheat his teacher is passed down in the introductions to va
21、rious late rhetorical treatises.Tisias got his teacher to agree that he would not pay him his teachers fee until he won his first lawsuit.He then avoided going to court.Corax got him into court by suing him himself,for the money.He argued that if he,Corax,won the case,he would get his pay,and if he
22、lost,he would still get it because Tisias would have won his first lawsuit,thereby fulfilling the terms of their agreement.Tisias,some versions say,retorted that if he,Tisias,lost the case,he would escape under the terms of the agreement,having lost,not won,his first lawsuit,and if he won it he shou
23、ld also be free,since he would be awarded the money at issue.The judge is said to have thrown both of them out of court,remarking,kakou korakos kakon oon,a bad egg from a bad crow”.,pkrifl adj.伪的,不足凭信的,tri:ts专题论文,专著,Gorgias(485-380 B.C.),Gorgias was a student of Tisias.He was among the first success
24、ful Sophists in Athens.Gorgias was a great speaker and had many students who wanted the fame he promised.He advocated that the great speaker should know the right time,what to say and when.As one of the most famous Sophists,Gorgias had tremendous influence on oratory.,Socrates,让莱昂热罗姆(18241904)于1861年
25、创作的法庭上的芙丽涅,The hour of departure has arrived,and we go our ways-I to die,and you to live.Which is better God only knows.分手的时刻已经到来，我们将各走各的路我将死了，你将活着。那一种比较好呢？只有神知道。,Socrates quotes,处女芙丽涅做了雕塑模特,因此被视为“有伤风化”，以渎神罪受到了法庭审讯。审判时，辩护士（相当于今天的律师）希佩里德斯，让被告在众目睽睽之下揭开衣服裸露躯体，并对着在场的501位市民陪审团成员说：“难道能忍心让这样美的形象毁灭、永远消逝吗？！”
26、最后，市民陪审团秘密表决，绝大多数倒向“美”的一边。铁面无私的法庭，终于宣告美的化身芙丽涅无罪。,古希腊发生过两场最著名的生死审判一场是“对理智的审判”：就是对于思想的亵渎者雅典最智慧的能言善辩的哲学家苏格拉底的审判，另一场是“对美的审判”：就是对于道德的亵渎者希腊最美丽的雕像模特儿芙丽涅的审判；两者先后都面临着死亡的厄运。然而，两场生死审判的最终裁决，却完全不同创导辩证法的大哲学家苏格拉底以“思想叛逆罪”被判处极刑、令其服毒药自杀；而对于“有伤风化”的美的模特儿芙丽涅，却因为“显示了美”被宣告无罪释放。,故事要从阿佛洛狄忒的雕像说起。阿佛洛狄忒是古希腊神话中“爱与美的女神”，也就是（后来演变
27、为）古罗马神话中的维纳斯。她的形象“尼多斯的阿佛洛狄忒”在古希腊被誉为最美的雕像，整个希腊世界的人都来观赏她。名声之大，以致岛上其他优秀的雕像都被人们忽略了。应注意到：古希腊女神雕像长期以来大多是着衣而只半裸上身的而“尼多斯的阿佛洛狄忒”天真无暇、坦然纯洁地全身裸露，表现了一种新时代的审美观。是哪位雕刻家创造了这一尊最美的阿佛洛狄忒雕像呢？是普拉克西特利斯，公元前4世纪希腊最著名的雕刻大师，以“优美的样式”著称，而“阿佛洛狄忒的雕像”是他最杰出的代表作，也是古代最脍炙人口而且摹品最多的雕像。为了把“爱与美的女神”表现得更理想，他让秘密的爱人美丽的芙丽涅来做模特儿。,至今犹存的“尼多斯的阿佛洛狄
28、忒”雕像,古希腊最早的裸体模特儿芙丽涅是雅典最美的女子,古希腊奴隶市场上标明身价任人选购的女奴,关于美人芙丽涅的身份，可以做三种猜测：第一种猜测她是一个获得自由的女奴。起先在奴隶市场上曾被赤身裸体地“拍卖”，而被雕刻家普拉克西特利斯买来，作为自己的爱人，从而获得自由。作为标明身价公开出售的奴隶，不仅可以而且往往必须在市场上全裸露躯体，如同牲畜一样，任人观察、选购；但是一旦被看中、身份变为自由人以后，她就只能在家里规规矩矩做一个贤妻良母；不允许在公开场合全裸露身体，否则“有伤风化”就触犯了刑律，应付诸审判。第二种猜测她是一名妓女或歌舞伎；在古希腊的歌舞伎往往具有独特甚至惊人的表演天赋或绘画、音乐
29、、诗歌等艺术才华，但是这种可能性不大；因为古希腊时的妓女或歌舞伎公开裸露全身并不犯法。第三种猜测她是一名女祭司。这种可能性比较大。如果说美人儿芙丽涅是一名女祭司，那么只有在祭祀海神的节日里，她要执行洗礼仪式，裸体从海水中跳出来，面对着圣境的朝拜者。按照古希腊的清规戒律，她必须保持处女的身份，而且决不允许裸身在公共浴场露面。处女芙丽涅竟然做了雕塑模特儿！因此被视为“有伤风化”，以渎神罪受到了法庭审讯。,#Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher who became very influential in the development of Greek
30、 philosophy and,thus,Western philosophy in general.#The most extensive knowledge we have of him comes from Platos many dialogues.Socrates is best known for the dictum dktm名言,格言#Socrates didnt specialize in any one field like metaphysics or political philosophy in the manner that modern philosophers
31、do.Socrates explored a wide range of philosophical questions,but he generally focused on issues of most immediate need to humans like how to be virtuous or live a good life.If there is any one topic that occupied Socrates most,it would be ethics.,Socrates(469-399),In the Apology,Plato outlines some
32、of Socratess most famous philosophical ideas:1.the necessity of doing what one thinks is right even in the face of universal opposition,2.and the need to pursue knowledge even when opposed.,The Apology of Socrates is Platos version of the speech given by Socrates as he unsuccessfully defended himsel
33、f in 399 BC against the charges of corrupting the young,and by not believing in the gods in whom the city believes.Apology here has its earlier meaning(now usually expressed by the word apologia)of speaking in defense of a cause or of ones beliefs or actions(from the Ancient Greek).,What is the Socr
34、atic Method?Socrates was well known for engaging people in public deputations over things like the nature of virtue.He would ask people to explain a concept,point out flaws that would force them to alter their answer,and continue like this until the person either came up with a solid explanation or
35、admit that they really dont understand the concept.,The only good is knowledge and the only evil is ignorance.The unexamined life is not worth living.By all means marry.If you get a good wife you will become happy,and if you get a bad one you will become a philosopher.I cannot teach anybody anything
36、,I can only make them think.To find yourself,think for yourself.,Socrates quotes,德性就是知识;愚昧是罪恶之源或：美德即知识，无知即罪恶 未经审视的生活是毫无价值的 或：一种未经考察的生活是不值得过的好的婚姻仅给你带来幸福，不好的婚姻则可使你成为一位哲学家。想要找到自我,你必须独立思考.,The only good is knowledge and the only evil is ignorance.The unexamined life is not worth living.By all means marr
37、y.If you get a good wife you will become happy,and if you get a bad one you will become a philosopher.I cannot teach anybody anything,I can only make them think.To find yourself,think for yourself.,Socrates quotes,As for me,all I know is that I know nothing.Education is the kindling of a flame,not t
38、he filling of a vessel.An education obtained with money is worse than no education at all.Worthless people live only to eat and drink;people of worth eat and drink only to live.,Socrates quotes,1.He who is not contented with what he has,would not be contented with what he would like to have.2.Employ
39、 your time in improving yourself by other mens writings so that you shall gain easily what others have labored hard for.3.It is not living that matters,but living rightly.,Socrates quotes,对现在拥有的不满足，那么对他所期待的也不会满意。,将你的时间用于阅读他人的作品，别人费力学到的东西，你就能轻松获得。,活着不是重要的，重要的是怎么活。,Other men live to eat,while I eat to
40、 live.别人为食而生存，我为生存而食。Socrates 苏格拉底 All for one,one for all.人人为我，我为人人。法 Dumas pre大仲马 Easy come,easy go.易得者亦易失。Hazlitt赫斯特 There is no rose without a thorn.没有玫瑰花是不长刺的。Ray 雷 Treat other people as you hope they will treat you.你希望别人如何对待你，你就如何对待别人。Aesop（古希腊寓言家伊索）Admonish your friends privately,but praise t
41、hem openly.要私下告诫朋友，但是要公开夸奖朋友。Publius Syrus（叙利亚作家西拉丁）Experience more than sufficiently teaches that men govern nothing with more difficult than their tongues.经验给了我们太多的教训，告诉我们人类最难管制的东西，莫过于自己的舌头。Bendict de Spinoza（荷兰哲学家斯宾诺沙）Follow your own course,and let people talk.走自己的路，让人家去说吧。Alghieri Dantednti（意大利诗
42、人但丁）,A contemporary of Plato(slightly older than Plato)and founder of the first school of rhetoric in Athens,Isocrates viewed rhetoric as a powerful tool for investigating practical problems.,Isocrates(436-338 B.C.),He was born into the wealthy family of a flute manufacturer and was given the best e
43、ducation available.(He studied with a variety of sophists,as well as with Socrates.)He became a lawyer,a speech writer for the courts,for about ten years.*He wanted to be an orator,but he lacked the strong voice and stage presence(he had stage fright)to do this,so instead he became a teacher of rhet
44、oric.He was very successful at this and became both rich and famous at it.,*he was one of the canonical“Ten Attic Orators and had a marked influence on Cicero and Quintilian,and through them,on the entire educational system of the west.,Isocrates Philosophy,His opinion about metaphysics is different
45、 from that of Plato.He was a practical,down-to-earth man who wanted to solve immediate problems.Reality is immediate human experience:What you see is what you get.”Metaphysical speculation is a waste of time and energy.Knowledge is tentative.We cant know anything for sure.What we can have is good op
46、inions.A good opinion is one that helps explain life in a way that helps me get along in the world.Values are relative.Isocrates agrees with Plato in promoting traditional Greek values,but he does it for different reasons.Isocrates believes those values are useful,but not necessarily the true values
47、.,Isocrates and Plato,Knnkl accepted,西方来源“形而上学”出自安德罗尼柯给亚里士多德的一部著作起的名称，意思是“物理学phusike之后”。也叫“第一哲学”（如笛卡儿的第一哲学沉思录）。后来人们简称metaphusike。meta在希腊语中不仅有“在之后”的意思，也有“元”、(metacognition)“超越”的意思，这正好符合第一哲学的含义。于是，形而上学就不是“物理学之后”，而是“物理学之前”了。亚里斯多德解释亚里士多德把人类的知识分为三部分，用大树作比喻：第一部分，最基础的部分，也就是树根，是形而上学，它是一切知识的奠基；第二部分是物理学，好比树干；
48、第三部分是其他自然科学，以树枝来比喻。物理学在希腊语中实际上是自然学的意思，自然phusis，自然学phusike。在亚里士多德那里，形而上学应该是“自然学的基础”。例如他那段脍炙人口的名言：“有一门学问专门研究作为存在的存在，即存在本身”，如果说存在的属性和方面以存在为前提，那么研究存在本身的第一哲学（形而上学）就是所有科学的基础和前提。这就是“哲学科学之科学”的由来。,中国来源据说是严复根据易经之“形而上学者谓之道，形而下者谓之器”，将metaphysics译为形而上学。老子有谓“形而上者谓之道，形而下者谓之器”，意为形而上的东西就是指道，既是指哲学方法，又是指思维活动。形而下则是指具体的
49、，可以捉摸到的东西或器物。形而上者，谓之道；相当于意识形而下者，谓之器。相当于物质 易经中把这种状态中的物质叫做“器”。“器”就是拥有具体形态、形体、质量和硬度的世界万物，我 们可以把它叫做现实物质。道是器的根源、本质和本体，器是道的发展态。,易经原文：“形而上者谓之道，形而下者谓之器”。形而上比较虚，形而下比较实，形而上与形而上学是不同的：形而上是指思维和宏观的属于虚的范畴；形而上学则是指认识事物走到了极端，是僵化的。老子有谓“形而上者谓之道，形而下者谓之器”，意为形而上的东西就是指道，既是指哲学方法，又是指思维活动。形而下则是指具体的，可以捉摸到的东西或器物。只讲形式，不究实质，这就是形而
50、上学.,Isocrates,like many modern thinkers,tends to view education as the savior of the world.1.Education should teach people to speak.Speech distinguishes us from animals.Speech was the key topolitical power.Isocrates believed that education should not just teach us to think or just teach us to fight.
