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1、浅谈混凝土的施工过程中温度与裂缝控制By G. K. Kululanga, W. Kuotcha, R. McCaffer, Member, ASCE, and F. Edum-Fotwe美国土木工程师学会摘 要 为了防止业主对混凝土工程的索赔,就必须做好施工过程中温度与裂缝控制。本文通过多年的现场观察,通过查阅有关混凝土内部应力方面的专著,对混凝土温度裂缝产生的原因、现场混凝土温度的控制和预防裂缝的措施进行等进行阐述。关键词:混凝土;温度应力;裂缝;控制混凝土在现代工程建设中占有重要地位。而在今天,混凝土的裂缝较为普遍,在桥梁工程中裂缝几乎无所不在。尽管我们在施工中采取各种措施,小心谨慎,但
2、裂缝仍然时有出现。究其原因,我们对混凝土温度应力的变化注意不够是其中之一。在大体积混凝土中,温度应力及温度控制具有重要意义。这主要是由于两方面的原因。首先,在施工中混凝土常常出现温度裂缝,影响到结构的整体性和耐久性。其次,在运转过程中,温度变化对结构的应力状态具有显著的不容忽视的影响。我们遇到的主要是施工中的温度裂缝,因此本文仅对施工中混凝土裂缝的成因和处理措施做一探讨。1、裂缝的原因混凝土中产生裂缝有多种原因,主要是温度和湿度的变化,混凝土的脆性和不均匀性,以及结构不合理,原材料不合格(如碱骨料反应),模板变形,基础不均匀沉降等。混凝土硬化期间水泥放出大量水化热,内部温度不断上升,在表面引起
3、拉应力。后期在降温过程中,由于受到基础或老混凝上的约束,又会在混凝土内部出现拉应力。气温的降低也会在混凝土表面引起很大的拉应力。当这些拉应力超出混凝土的抗裂能力时,即会出现裂缝。许多混凝土的内部湿度变化很小或变化较慢,但表面湿度可能变化较大或发生剧烈变化。如养护不周、时干时湿,表面干缩形变受到内部混凝土的约束,也往往导致裂缝。混凝土是一种脆性材料,抗拉强度是抗压强度的110左右,短期加荷时的极限拉伸变形只有(0.61.0)104, 长期加荷时的极限位伸变形也只有(1.22.0)104.由于原材料不均匀,水灰比不稳定,及运输和浇筑过程中的离析现象,在同一块混凝土中其抗拉强度又是不均匀的,存在着许
4、多抗拉能力很低,易于出现裂缝的薄弱部位。在钢筋混凝土中,拉应力主要是由钢筋承担,混凝土只是承受压应力。在素混凝土内或钢筋混凝上的边缘部位如果结构内出现了拉应力,则须依靠混凝土自身承担。一般设计中均要求不出现拉应力或者只出现很小的拉应力。但是在施工中混凝土由最高温度冷却到运转时期的稳定温度,往往在混凝土内部引起相当大的拉应力。有时温度应力可超过其它外荷载所引起的应力,因此掌握温度应力的变化规律对于进行合理的结构设计和施工极为重要。2、温度应力的分析根据温度应力的形成过程可分为以下三个阶段:(1)早期:自浇筑混凝土开始至水泥放热基本结束,一般约30天。这个阶段的两个特征,一是水泥放出大量的水化热,
5、二是混凝上弹性模量的急剧变化。由于弹性模量的变化,这一时期在混凝土内形成残余应力。(2)中期:自水泥放热作用基本结束时起至混凝土冷却到稳定温度时止,这个时期中,温度应力主要是由于混凝土的冷却及外界气温变化所引起,这些应力与早期形成的残余应力相叠加,在此期间混凝上的弹性模量变化不大。(3)晚期:混凝土完全冷却以后的运转时期。温度应力主要是外界气温变化所引起,这些应力与前两种的残余应力相迭加。根据温度应力引起的原因可分为两类:(1)自生应力:边界上没有任何约束或完全静止的结构,如果内部温度是非线性分布的,由于结构本身互相约束而出现的温度应力。例如,桥梁墩身,结构尺寸相对较大,混凝土冷却时表面温度低
6、,内部温度高,在表面出现拉应力,在中间出现压应力。(2)约束应力:结构的全部或部分边界受到外界的约束,不能自由变形而引起的应力。如箱梁顶板混凝土和护栏混凝土。这两种温度应力往往和混凝土的干缩所引起的应力共同作用。要想根据已知的温度准确分析出温度应力的分布、大小是一项比较复杂的工作。在大多数情况下,需要依靠模型试验或数值计算。混凝土的徐变使温度应力有相当大的松驰,计算温度应力时,必须考虑徐变的影响,具体计算这里就不再细述。3、温度的控制和防止裂缝的措施为了防止裂缝,减轻温度应力可以从控制温度和改善约束条件两个方面着手。控制温度的措施如下:(1)采用改善骨料级配,用干硬性混凝土,掺混合料,加引气剂
7、或塑化剂等措施以减少混凝土中的水泥用量;(2)拌合混凝土时加水或用水将碎石冷却以降低混凝土的浇筑温度;(3)热天浇筑混凝土时减少浇筑厚度,利用浇筑层面散热;(4)在混凝土中埋设水管,通入冷水降温;(5)规定合理的拆模时间,气温骤降时进行表面保温,以免混凝土表面发生急剧的温度梯度;(6)施工中长期暴露的混凝土浇筑块表面或薄壁结构,在寒冷季节采取保温措施;改善约束条件的措施是:(1)合理地分缝分块;(2)避免基础过大起伏;(3)合理的安排施工工序,避免过大的高差和侧面长期暴露;此外,改善混凝土的性能,提高抗裂能力,加强养护,防止表面干缩,特别是保证混凝土的质量对防止裂缝是十分重要,应特别注意避免产
8、生贯穿裂缝,出现后要恢复其结构的整体性是十分困难的,因此施工中应以预防贯穿性裂缝的发生为主。在混凝土的施工中,为了提高模板的周转率,往往要求新浇筑的混凝土尽早拆模。当混凝土温度高于气温时应适当考虑拆模时间,以免引起混凝土表面的早期裂缝。新浇筑早期拆模,在表面引起很大的拉应力,出现“温度冲击”现象。在混凝土浇筑初期,由于水化热的散发,表面引起相当大的拉应力,此时表面温度亦较气温为高,此时拆除模板,表面温度骤降,必然引起温度梯度,从而在表面附加一拉应力,与水化热应力迭加,再加上混凝土干缩,表面的拉应力达到很大的数值,就有导致裂缝的危险,但如果在拆除模板后及时在表面覆盖一轻型保温材料,如泡沫海棉等,
9、对于防止混凝土表面产生过大的拉应力,具有显著的效果。加筋对大体积混凝土的温度应力影响很小,因为大体积混凝土的含筋率极低。只是对一般钢筋混凝土有影响。在温度不太高及应力低于屈服极限的条件下,钢的各项性能是稳定的,而与应力状态、时间及温度无关。钢的线胀系数与混凝土线胀系数相差很小,在温度变化时两者间只发生很小的内应力。由于钢的弹性模量为混凝土弹性模量的715倍,当内混凝土应力达到抗拉强度而开裂时,钢筋的应力将不超过100200kgcm2.因此,在混凝土中想要利用钢筋来防止细小裂缝的出现很困难。但加筋后结构内的裂缝一般就变得数目多、间距小、宽度与深度较小了。而且如果钢筋的直径细而间距密时,对提高混凝
10、土抗裂性的效果较好。混凝土和钢筋混凝土结构的表面常常会发生细而浅的裂缝,其中大多数属于干缩裂缝。虽然这种裂缝一般都较浅,但它对结构的强度和耐久性仍有一定的影响。为保证混凝土工程质量,防止开裂,提高混凝土的耐久性,正确使用外加剂也是减少开裂的措施之一。例如使用减水防裂剂,笔者在实践中总结出其主要作用为:(1)混凝土中存在大量毛细孔道,水蒸发后毛细管中产生毛细管张力,使混凝土干缩变形。增大毛细孔径可降低毛细管表面张力,但会使混凝土强度降低。这个表面张力理论早在六十年代就已被国际上所确认。(2)水灰比是影响混凝土收缩的重要因素,使用减水防裂剂可使混凝土用水量减少25。(3)水泥用量也是混凝土收缩率的
11、重要因素,掺加减水防裂剂的混凝土在保持混凝土强度的条件下可减少15的水泥用量,其体积用增加骨料用量来补充。(4)减水防裂剂可以改善水泥浆的稠度,减少混凝土泌水,减少沉缩变形。(5)提高水泥浆与骨料的粘结力,提高的混凝土抗裂性能。(6)混凝土在收缩时受到约束产生拉应力,当拉应力大于混凝土抗拉强度时裂缝就会产生。减水防裂剂可有效的提高的混凝土抗拉强度,大幅提高混凝土的抗裂性能。(7)掺加外加剂可使混凝土密实性好,可有效地提高混凝土的抗碳化性,减少碳化收缩。(8)掺减水防裂剂后混凝土缓凝时间适当,在有效防止水泥迅速水化放热基础上,避免因水泥长期不凝而带来的塑性收缩增加。(9)掺外加剂混凝土和易性好,
12、表面易抹平,形成微膜,减少水分蒸发,减少干燥收缩.许多外加剂都有缓凝、增加和易性、改善塑性的功能,我们在工程实践中应多进行这方面的实验对比和研究,比单纯的靠改善外部条件,可能会更加简捷、经济。4、混凝土的早期养护实践证明,混凝土常见的裂缝,大多数是不同深度的表面裂缝,其主要原因是温度梯度造成寒冷地区的温度骤降也容易形成裂缝。因此说混凝土的保温对防止表面早期裂缝尤其重要。从温度应力观点出发,保温应达到下述要求:1)防止混凝土内外温度差及混凝土表面梯度,防止表面裂缝。2)防止混凝土超冷,应该尽量设法使混凝土的施工期最低温度不低于混凝土使用期的稳定温度。3)防止老混凝土过冷,以减少新老混凝土间的约束
13、。混凝土的早期养护,主要目的在于保持适宜的温湿条件,以达到两个方面的效果,一方面使混凝土免受不利温、湿度变形的侵袭,防止有害的冷缩和干缩。一方面使水泥水化作用顺利进行,以期达到设计的强度和抗裂能力。适宜的温湿度条件是相互关联的。混凝上的保温措施常常也有保湿的效果。从理论上分析,新浇混凝土中所含水分完全可以满足水泥水化的要求而有余。但由于蒸发等原因常引起水分损失,从而推迟或妨碍水泥的水化,表面混凝土最容易而且直接受到这种不利影响。因此混凝土浇筑后的最初几天是养护的关键时期,在施工中应切实重视起来。2.防水混凝土施工质量控制结合经验,对模板的设计、制作安装、钢筋绑扎、混凝土浇筑及养护等关键工序的操
14、作要点进行了阐述,并介绍了成型后混凝土的质量控制标准,以降低工程造价,具有很好的经济和社会效益。影响防水混凝土的质量因素很多。任何一个环节不注意均会不同程度地损失防水混凝土阻 水功能,在地下室工程施工中,采取了从模板制作与安装、钢筋制作与绑扎、混凝土的拌制和运输、混凝土的浇筑和振捣、施工缝作法、混凝土的养护与拆模以及做好回填土等方面严把质量关 方法确保防水混凝土自防水,并通过实践获得成功。 施工方法21 模板制作与安装 由于防水混凝土特别强调密实性,所以对模板的制作和安装也相应提高 了要求 ,即要求密实不漏浆,坚固不变形 ,吸水性要小 ,宜优先选用竹胶板模板或钢模板。严格控制模板间的缝隙大小
15、,超过 2 mm的必须用海绵条塞缝 ,对于板面多孔的模板一律不用,同时做好墙柱烂根防治工作,采取根部贴海绵条,底部抹水泥砂浆 ,浇筑混凝土前,先注入同标号的水泥砂浆 由于防水混凝土结构壁厚大多较薄,为保证构件的几何尺寸,常采用内外螺栓拉接的措施,需要注意的是 ,应在拉接螺栓中间设置止水铁板 ,以防止水沿着螺栓渗漏,形成引水通路。22 钢筋制作与绑扎 防水混凝土结构对钢筋有如下要求 :1)钢筋应尽可能采用螺纹钢筋 ,增加握裹力和止水能力。2)钢筋接头应尽量采用焊接接头 ,尽量少用和不用绑扎接头。4)严格控制钢筋保护层厚度。防水混凝土钢筋保护层最小厚度不小于25 mm,特别是迎水面的保护层不允许有
16、负误差,用砂浆垫块作保护层时,应用预埋在砂浆块内的铁丝与钢筋绑扎 牢固。若采用钢筋铁马架固定钢筋时,也应加焊止水铁板或固定 在垫块上,以增强防水效果,本工程用新型材料尼龙固定片有效 的防止了钢筋保护层偏差过大的质量通病。 2.3混凝土的拌制和运输由于防水混凝土要求较高的密实性,所以拌制也要有较好的 均匀性,为此应做好如下几点:1)确保搅拌时间,每次搅拌从投料到出料一般不少于 2 min。2)当使用外加剂,应将外加剂制成一定浓度的溶液后加入搅 拌机内,不得将外加剂的干粉或高浓度溶液直接加入搅拌机内, 防止搅拌不均匀而局部集中,既失去外加剂作用 ,又影响混凝土质量。3)施工过程中应定期抽查测定混凝
17、土坍落度,施工中如遇下 雨或其他原因,砂石含水量发生变化时,应及时测定其含水率,并 调整施工配合比。4)本工程使用商品混凝土,有效的提高了混凝土搅拌质量及 各类外加剂的掺量,严格控制了混凝土水灰比及坍落度。 5)混凝土的浇筑采用泵送工艺,有效的避免了混凝土在运输过程中产生离析泌水及漏浆现象。24 施工中的注意事项 1)施工作业面的合理划分。防水混凝土浇筑应严格分层进行 ,并一次连续施工完成前后及上下层之间接头应严格控制在 水泥的初凝时间内为此 ,可将操作工人分成几个作业组同时相 向或相背而行。2)严格做到定点定量下料。根据分层浇筑高度和运输工具的车容量,严格进行定点定量方可下料,这是提高防水混
18、凝土浇 筑质量的重要一环。3)坚持开门子下料或用串桶(溜槽)下料。为防止水泥浆与 骨料分离,防水混凝土下料时自由高度应不超过防水结 构钢筋密集,当浇筑高度较高时 ,应按规定在模板上开门子下料或用串桶(溜槽)下料,防止水泥浆与骨料分离,同时也避免水泥 浆或混凝土松散地堆积于钢筋交叉处和水泥浆溅粘于模板表面,既造成后面下料困难 ,又影响结构表面光滑,成为日后渗漏隐患。4)混凝土的振捣是保证混凝土密实、防渗的重要一环, 点定量均匀下料的基础上,也应采取定点振捣,精心操作注意上 下层的衔接,既要防止漏振、欠振,又要防止过振,特别要禁止用 撬动钢筋或振动钢筋来助振的方法,这样将使前面已浇筑振实部 分的钢
19、筋与混凝土分离,造成严重后果。 5)认真做好接浆措施,及时调整坍落度。防水混凝土结构施 工中,常常是底板与竖壁分别施工,即在竖壁上做施工缝处理。在浇筑竖壁时应在接缝处先浇一层 5cm10 cm厚的同标号水 泥砂浆衔接层,以保证接缝处振捣密实。同时,随着浇筑高度的 逐步提高,应逐步减少用水量,减小坍落度防止浇筑到上部出现 骨料偏少而水泥浆偏多现象。Discuss the construction temperature and crack of the concrete lightly By G. K. Kululanga, W. Kuotcha, R. McCaffer, Member, AS
20、CE, and F. Edum-Fotwe ,The American Society of Civil EngineersThe summary , In order to prevent the owners of the concrete work of claims, we must do a good job in the construction process in the temperature and crack control,through observation live for many years, through consulting the monograph
21、about stress within the concrete, explain to concrete temperature reason , on-the-spot concrete control and measure , prevention of crack of temperature that crack produce. Keyword Concrete Temperature stress Crack Control 1. The concrete occupies the important position in modern engineering constru
22、ction. But today, the crack of the concrete is comparatively general, the cracks are nearly omnipresent in the science of bridge building. Though we take various kinds of measures in constructing, careful, but the crack still occurs now and then. Tracing it to its cause, it is one of them incomplete
23、ly that our change to concrete temperature stress pays attention to. In the large volume concrete, temperature stress and temperature control are significant. This is mainly because of the reason of two respects. First of all, concrete often appear the temperature crack in not constructing, influenc
24、e the globality and durability of the structure. Secondly, in the course of operating, the temperature change has remarkable influence that cant be ignored on the stress state of the structure. We meet to construct temperature crack in mainly, so only to origin cause of formation and treatment measu
25、re, concrete of crack make a discussion in constructing this text. Reason of a crack Have many kinds of reasons to produce the crack in the concrete, it is mainly the changes of temperature and humidity, fragility and disparity of the concrete, and the structure is unreasonable, the raw materials is
26、 not up to standard (if the alkali aggregate react), the template is out of shape, the foundation does not subside etc. evenly . The cement emits a large amount of heat of hydration when the concrete is hardenned, inside temperature is rising constantly, cause the stress of drawing on the surface. I
27、n the course of lowering the temperature , is it congeal foundation pay restrain to mix always later stage, will present the stress of drawing within the concrete . Reducing of temperature can surface cause heavy stress of drawing very in concrete too. When these draw the stress and go beyond resist
28、ing the ability of splitting of concrete , namely will present the crack . A lot of inside humidity of concrete change very light or change relatively slow, surface humidity might change heavy the violent change takes placing. Such as maintaining thoroughly, when getting wetter when not doing,contra
29、ct surface there arent deformation doing, often cause the crack too. The concrete is a kind of fragility material , tensile strength is about 1/10 of the compression strength, is it carry on ones shoulder or back limit when draw out of shape to have *104 only , is it carry on ones shoulder or back l
30、imit location when stretch out of shape to there is *104 to add for a long time to add a short time. Because raw materials even, water dust than unstable, transport and build phenomenon of emanating of course, its tensile strength is not even in the same concrete, a lot of resist the ability of draw
31、ing very low, it is apt to present the weak position of the crack. Among armored concrete , draw stress to undertake by reinforcing bar mainly , concrete bear stress of keeping just. Or reinforcing bar mix if edge position gone to to congeal present the stress of drawing in the structure in plain co
32、ncrete, must rely on the concrete oneself to bear . Require to avoid the stress of drawing or only very small stress of drawing appears of the the general design. But the concrete is cooled from maximum temperature to the steady temperature of operating period in constructing, often cause sizable to
33、 draw the stress within the concrete. The temperature stress can exceed other outsides and load the stresses caused sometimes, know change law , temperature of stress for carry on reasonable structural design and construct extremely important. Analysis of 2 temperature stresses Can be divided into f
34、ollowing three stages according to the forming process of the temperature stress: (1)It is early: Build concrete is it is it over basically to send out heat to cement to begin , generally one one day by oneself. Two characteristics at this stage, first, the cement emits a large amount of heat of hyd
35、ration, second , mix and congeal the changing sharply of elastic model quantity. Because of the change of elastic model quantity , form the remaining stress in the concrete in this period. (2)Middle period: Up till the concrete is cooled until stability temperature from cement send out heat function
36、 basically when expiring, in this period, the temperature stress is mainly because the cooling of the concrete and external temperature change cause, these stresses and remnants stresses that is formed in early days are superposed , mix and congeal the elastic mould amount that goes to and does not
37、change much during this period. (3)Later period: Operation period after the complete cooling of concrete. Temperature stress whether external temperature change cause mainly, these stresses and first two kinds of remnants stresseses are changed and added . Can be divided into two kinds according to
38、the reason why the temperature stress causes: (1)Spontaneous stress: There are not any restraint or totally static structure at the border, if inside temperature is non-linear distribution, temperature stress appearing because structure restrains from each other. For example, the body of mound of th
39、e bridge, the physical dimension is relatively large, surface temperature is low when the concrete is cooled, inside temperature is high, present the stress of drawing on the surface, present the stress of pressing in the middle. (2)Restrain the stress: All of the structure ones or it restrain exter
40、nal one some border,cant out of shape and stress not cause not free. Such as case roof beam roof concrete and guardrail concrete. This two kinds of temperature stresses draw back stresses caused to act on with the doing of concrete together frequently. It is a more complicated job to want to analyse
41、 the distribution , size of the temperature stress accurately according to known temperature. In case of great majority , need to rely on the model test or the number value to calculate. To is it make temperature stress have sizable limp to creep concrete, at the stress accounting temperature, must
42、consider the influence that creep , calculate concretly that no longer states thinly here. Control and preventing the measure of the crack of 3 temperature For prevent crack , lighten temperature stress can from control temperature and is it is it set about to restrain terms from two to improve. The
43、 measure of controlling temperature is as follows: (1)Is it improve aggregate grade mix , is it do rigid concrete to spend , mix mixture to adopt, is it guide angry pharmaceutical or plastification pharmaceutical ,etc. measure in order to reduce cement consumption of concrete to add; (2)Add water or
44、 the water to cool the broken stone in order to reduce the temperature of building of the concrete while mixing and shutting the concrete; (3)Reduce the thickness of building while building the concrete on hot day, utilize and build the aspect to dispel the heat; (4)Bury the water pipe underground i
45、n the concrete, enter the cold water to lower the temperature openly; (5)Stipulate rational form removal time, the temperature keeps warm the surface while lowering suddenly, in case that the rapid temperature gradient takes place in the concrete surface; (6)The concrete with medium and long-term an
46、d exposed construction builds a piece of surface or thin wall structure, take the measure of keeping warm in cold season; The measure of improving condition of restraining is: (1)Divide and sew and divide one rationally ; (2)Prevent the foundation from rising and falling too big; (3)Rational arrange
47、ment construction process, prevent the too big discrepancy in elevation and side from exposing for a long time; In addition, improve the performance of the concrete and improve and resist the ability of splitting, strengthen maintenance , prevent the surface from being done and contracted , especial
48、ly guarantee the quality of the concrete is very important to preventing the crack, should pay special attention to avoiding producing and running through the crack , the globality resumed its structure after appearing is very difficult, so should rely mainly on preventing the emergence of the running through crack while constructing. In construction of concrete , for raise turnover rate of template , demand concrete form removal as soon as possible that build newly often. Should consider form removal time properly when concrete temperature is higher than the temperature, so as not to cause