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1、Environmental problems caused byIstanbul subway excavation and suggestionsfor remediation伊斯坦布尔地铁开挖引起的环境问题及补救建议Ibrahim OcakAbstract：Manyenvironmental problems caused by subway excavations haveinevitably become an importantpoint in city life. These problems can be categorized astransporting and stocki
2、ng of excavated material, trafc jams, noise, vibrations, piles of dust mudand lack of supplies. Although these problems cause many difculties,the most pressing for a bigcity like Istanbul is excavation,since other listed difculties result from it. Moreover, theseproblems are environmentally and regi
3、onally restricted to the period over which constructionprojects are underway and disappear when construction is nished. Currently, in Istanbul, there arenine subway construction projects in operation, covering approximately 73 km in length; over 200km to be constructed in the near future. The amount
4、 of material excavated from ongoingconstruction projects covers approximately 12 million m3. In this study, problemsprimarily, theproblem with excavation waste(EW)caused by subway excavation are analyzed and suggestionsfor remediation are offered.摘要：许多地铁开挖引起的环境问题不可避免地成为城市生活的重要部分。这些问题可归类为开挖肥料的运输和储存、交
5、通堵塞、噪音污染、震动、成堆的灰尘和泥浆以及物资不足。虽然这些问题引起很多困难，对于一个像伊斯坦布尔这样的城市，最亟待解决的问题是开挖的问题，因为其他一系列问题都是由此引起的。此外，这些问题受环境和地域限制并具有周期性，他们随工程项目开始和结束而出现和消失。最近，伊斯坦布尔有 9 条地铁项目在施工，总长约有 73km，另外，将有超过 200km 的地铁线会在不久的将来动工。正在施工的3的问题，并对补救办法提出建议。Keywords: Environmental problems.Subway excavation .Waste management .项目将产生约 1200 万 m 的工程垃圾
6、。本文将分析由地铁建设带来的问题，主要是开挖废料Excavation waste关键词：环境问题 地铁开挖 废物处理 开挖废料I. OcakRail Transport Construction Department,Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality,IETT General Directorate, Karakoy-Istanbul, TurkeyI. Ocak (邮件)Mining Engineering Department, Istanbul University,Avclar-Istanbul, Turkeye-mail: iocakiett.go
7、v.trIntroductionNowadays, cities are spreading over larger areas with increasing demand on extendingtransport facilities. Thus,all over the world, especially in cities where the population exceeds300,000400,000 people, railway-based means of transportation is being accepted as the ultimatesolution.T
8、herefore, large investments in subway and light rail construction are required. Theconstruction of stated systems requires surface excavations, cut and cover tunnel excavations,bored tunnel excavations, redirection of infrastructures and tunnel construction projects. Theseelements disturb the enviro
9、nment and affect everyday life of citizens in terms of running water,natural gas, sewer systems and telephone lines.简介：现如今，城市的大面积扩张要求交通设施快速增长。因此，全世界，特别是在人口超过 30 万-40 万的城市，轨道交通逐渐被认为是最终的解决办法。正因如此，地铁和轻轨上的大规模投资是必然的。整个轨道交通系统的建设包括地表建设、明挖隧道开挖、钻孔隧道开挖、地下建筑的改造和隧道建设项目。这些都会影响周围的环境并在自来水、天然气、排污和电话线等方面影响市民的日常生活。On
10、e reason why metro excavations affect the environment is the huge amount of excavatedmaterial produced.Moreover, a large amount of this excavated material is composed of muddy andbentonite material. Storing excavated material then becomes crucial. A considerable amount ofpressure has been placed on
11、ofcials to store and recycle any kind of excavated material. Wastemanagement has become a branch of study by itself. Many studies have been carried out on thedestruction, recycling and storing of solid, (Vlachos 1975; Huang et al. 2001; Winkler2005;Huang et al. 2006; Khan et al. 1987; Boadi and Kuit
12、unen 2003; Staudt and Schroll 1999;Wang 2001; Okuda and Thomson 2007; Yang and Innes 2007), organic (Edwards et al. 1998,Jackson 2006; Debra et al. 1991; Akhtar and Mahmood 1996; Bruun et al. 2006; Minh et al.2006),plastic (Idris et al. 2004; Karani and Stan Jewasikiewitz 2007; Ali et al. 2004; Nish
13、ino et al.2003; Vas ile et al.2006; Kato et al. 2003; Kasakura et al. 1999; Hayashi et al. 2000), toxic(Rodgers et al. 1996; Bell and Wilson 1988; Chen et al. 1997; Sullivan and Yelton 1988), oily(Ahumada et al. 2004; Al-Masri and Suman 2003), farming(Garnier et al. 1998; Mohanty 2001)and radioactiv
14、e materials (Rocco and Zucchetti 1997; Walker et al. 2001;Adamov et al. 1992;Krinitsyn et al. 2003).地铁建设影响环境的一个原因是开挖产生的大量垃圾，而且大部分开挖垃圾都是泥土。工程垃圾的处理是关键，负责储存和回收利用这些工程废料的人员承受着非常大的压力，废物处理也因此成为一个单独的研究分支。关于这些垃圾的销毁、回收利用和储存的研究已经开展了很多：泥土（Vlachos 1975; Huang et al. 2001; Winkler 2005;Huang et al. 2006; Khan et
15、al.1987; Boadi and Kuitunen 2003; Staudt and Schroll 1999; Wang 2001; Okuda and Thomson 2007;Yang and Innes 2007）、有机物（Edwards et al. 1998, Jackson 2006; Debra et al. 1991; Akhtar andMahmood 1996; Bruun et al. 2006; Minh et al. 2006）、塑料（Idris et al. 2004; Karani and StanJewasikiewitz 2007; Ali et al.
16、 2004; Nishino et al. 2003; Vasile et al.2006; Kato et al. 2003;Kasakura et al. 1999; Hayashi et al. 2000）、油脂（ Ahumada et al. 2004; Al-Masri and Suman2003）、耕地（Garnier et al. 1998; Mohanty 2001）、放射性物质（Rocco and Zucchetti 1997;Walker et al. 2001;Adamov et al. 1992; Krinitsyn et al. 2003）。Today, tradit
17、ional materials, including sand, stone, gravel, cement, brick and tiles are beingused as major building components in the construction sector. All of these materials have beenproduced from existing natural resources and may have intrinsic distinctions that damage theenvironment due to their continuo
18、us exploitation. In addition, the cost of construction materials isincrementally increasing. In Turkey, the prices of construction materials have increased over thelast few years (Fig. 1). Therefore,it is very important to use excavation and demolition wastes(DW) in construction operations to limit
19、the environmental impact and excessive increase of rawmaterial prices. Recycling ratios for excavation waste (EW) and DW of some countries are inshown Table 1 (Hendriks and Pietersen 2000). The recycling ratio for Turkey is10%.Every year,14 million tons of waste materials are generated in Istanbul.
20、These waste materials consist of 7.6million tons EW, 1.6 million tons organic materials and 2.7 million tons DW (IMM 2007). Thedistribution of waste materials, according to listed sources, can be seen in Figs. 2 and 3.Approximately, 3.7 million tons of municipal wastes are produced in Istanbul every
21、 year. However,the recycling rate is approximately equal to only 7%. This rate will increase to 27%, when theconstruction of the plant is completed. Medical wastes are another problem, with over 9,000 tonsdumped every year. Medical wastes are disposed by burning. Distributions of municipal wastesare
22、 given in Fig. 4.目前，包括沙子、石头、砂砾、水泥、砖头、瓷砖在内的传统材料被建筑部门用作主要的建筑成分。所有这些材料都是从现有的自然资源中生产出来的，具有固有的特性，并因不断的开采而对环境造成危害。另外，建筑材料的价格正在逐渐上涨，在土耳其，近几年的建筑材料的价格一直在上涨（见图 1）。因此，为减轻环境破坏和减缓原材料价格的过渡上涨，在建筑工程中循环利用开挖废料和拆迁废料是非常重要的。一些国家的开挖废料和拆迁废料的回收利用率见表 1（Hendriks and Pietersen 2000），土耳其的回收利用率是 10%。每年伊斯坦布尔会产生 1400 万吨垃圾，其中包括 76
23、00 万吨开挖废料，1600 万吨有机材料，2700 万吨拆迁废料（IMM2007），按来源分类，垃圾的分布情况如图 2、3。每年伊斯坦布尔约会产生 3700 万吨城市垃圾，然而垃圾的回收利用率却只有 7%左右，垃圾处理厂建设完成之后，回收比率将上升到 27%。另一个问题的医疗垃圾，每年将倾倒 9000 吨医疗垃圾，目前处理医疗垃圾的方式是焚烧。城市垃圾的分类见图 4。Fig. 1 The increase of construction material prices over the last 10 years图 1最近 10 年建筑材料价格增长Table 1 Comparison of
24、a few countries construction waste concentration表 1部分国家建筑垃圾浓度对比Fig. 2 Current status of solid waste generation in Istanbul图 2伊斯坦布尔当前固体垃圾的组成Fig. 3 Current status of solid waste distribution in Istanbul图 3伊斯坦布尔当前固体垃圾的分布Fig. 4 Current status of municipal waste distribution in Istanbul图 4伊斯坦布尔当前城市垃圾的分布I
25、n this study, environmental problems in Istanbul, such as EW resulting from tunnellingoperations, DW resulting from building demolition and home wastes, are evaluated. Resources ofEW, material properties and alternatives of possible usage are also evaluated.本文论及伊斯坦布尔的环境问题，如隧道开挖产生的开挖废料、建筑拆迁产生的拆迁垃圾、生活
26、垃圾，也涉及开挖垃圾的来源、材料属性以及使用替代材料的可能。Railway system studiesThree preliminary studies concerning transportation in Istanbul were conducted in 1985,1987 and 1997. A fourth study is currently being conducted. The Istanbul Transportation MainPlan states that railway systems must constitute the main facet of Is
27、tanbuls transportationnet-work (IMM 2005). In addition to existing lines, within the scope of the Marmaray Project, 36km of metro, 96 km of light rail, and 7 km of tram, with a total of 205 km of new railway lines,must be constructed. Consequently, the total length of railway line will exceed 250 km
28、.轨道交通系统研究关于伊斯坦布尔交通系统的三个研究分别在 1985 年、1987 年和 1997 年开展，第四个研究项目将于近期开展。伊斯坦布尔交通总规划表明，轨道交通系统将成为伊斯坦布尔交通网络的主要部分（IMM 2005)。除了目前的线路，根据 Marmaray 项目计划，包括 36km地铁、96km 轻轨、7km 有轨电车在内的总计 205km 新轨道线路将建设完成。因此，轨道交通线路总长将超过 250km。Details regarding railway lines currently under construction in Istanbul are given in Table
29、 2and Fig. 5.Railway lines in the project stage or tender stage are given in Table 3 (IMM 2004).伊斯坦布尔正在施工的轨道交通线路详情见表 2 和图 5，处于设计或投标阶段的轨道交通线路见表 3（IMM 2004）。Table 2 Ongoing railway systems in Istanbul表 2伊斯坦布尔施工中的轨道交通线路Fig. 5 Ongoing railway system studies in Istanbul图 5伊斯坦布尔施工中的轨道交通线路研究Table 3 Railway
30、 lines in project or tender stage in Istanbul表 3伊斯坦布尔设计或投标中的轨道交通线路Environmentalproblemscausedbysubwayexcavations地铁建设引起的环境问题Transporting and storing excavated material开挖废料的运输和储存Almost all land in Istanbul is inhabited. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to store andrecycle excavated material obtai
31、ned either from metro excavations or other construction activities,causing minimal damage and disturbance to the city.The collection, temporary storage, recycling,reuse,transportation and destruction of excavated material and construction waste are controlledby environmental law number 2872. Accordi
32、ng to this law, it is essential that:伊斯坦布尔几乎所有的土地都有人居住，因此，为了将对城市产生的破坏降到最低，包括地铁开挖和其他建筑工程引起的开挖废料的储存和回收利用显得非常重要。环境法 2872条规定了开挖废料和建筑垃圾的采集、暂时储存、回收、重新利用、运输和销毁等方面，主要内容有：1. Waste must be reduced at its source.2. Management must take necessary precautions to reduce the harmful effects of waste.1、垃圾必须从源头控制；2、
33、管理部门必须采取必要的措施以减少垃圾的不良影响；3. Excavated material must be recycled and reused,especially within the constructioninfrastructure.4. Excavated material and construction waste must not be mixed.5. Waste must be separated from its source and subjected to “selective destruction” in order toform a sound system
34、 for recycling and destruction.6. Producers of excavated material or construction waste must provide required funds to destroywaste.3、开挖废料必需回收利用，特别是地下结构工程中的开挖废料；4、开挖废料和建筑垃圾必需区分开来；5、废料必需在源头分类，并按“选择性销毁”的原则形成一套完整的回收和销毁系统；6、开挖废料或者建筑垃圾的责任人必须为处理垃圾提供必需的费用。According to environmental laws, municipalities are
35、 responsible for nding areas withintheir province limits to excavate and operate these systems. Both the Istanbul MetropolitanMunicipality Environmental Protection and Waste Recycling Company are the foundations thatactively carryout all operations regarding excavated material.根据环境法规定，政府有责任在行政范围内规划一
36、定的土地用来建设和运行垃圾回收处理系统，伊斯坦布尔环保局和垃圾回收公司是负责广泛开展开挖废料处理的主要部门。Since dumping areas have limited space, they are quickly lled, without any availableplausible solution for remediation. In addition, existing dumping areas are far away from metroexcavation areas. This means that loaded trucks are competing with
37、city trafc, causing trafccongestion with their low speed and pollutants dropping off their wheels or bodies. Furthermore,this results in a loss of money and labour.垃圾堆放空间有限，很快就会堆满，目前却又没有任何有效可行的解决办法。除此之外，目前的垃圾堆放区远离地铁建设的地方，这意味着满载的货车将挤进城市交通，并因低速和车轮、车身上掉落的污染物而引起交通堵塞，另外，这也将导致资金和人力的短缺。Details regarding ex
38、cavated material pertaining to ongoing railway systems in Istanbul aregiven in Table 4.The cross section in the table represents only tunnels on the main line. Given thefact that the swelling value of rock is 1.41.5, together with the diameter values given above, theapproximate amount of excavated m
39、aterial from ongoing railway excavation will be equal to 12million m3. All tunnels have been excavated with new Austrian tunnelling method (NATM), earthpressure balance method (EPBM), tunnel boring machine (TBM), and cut and cover method.伊斯坦布尔建设中轨道交通线路的开挖废料详情，见表 4。表格中横断面代表主要线路上的隧道不分。岩石的实际膨胀率是 1.4-1.
40、5，综合考虑表中给出的直径，建设中的轨道交3（EPBM）、TBM 法或明挖法进行施工。Existing dumping areas in Istanbul are listed in Table 5.When Tables 4 and 5 are examinedtogether, it can be seen that existing dumping areas can only accommodate material excavatedfrom the metro construction. Another important matter according to Table 5 i
41、s that 93% of existingdumping areas are on the European side of Istanbul, with 88% of them in Kemerburgaz. Thus, allexcavated material on the Anatolian side must cross over European site every day for a distance ofapproximately 150 km. Every day, on average, 3,000 trucks carry various types of excav
42、atedmaterial to Kemerburgaz from other parts of Istanbul. This leads to a waste of time and increasedenvironmental pollution.伊斯坦布尔现存的垃圾堆放区见表 5。对比分析表 4、表 5，我们会发现，现存的垃圾倾倒区仅能满足地铁开挖产生的开挖废料。表 5 反映的另一个严重问题是，93%的现存垃圾倾倒区都在伊斯坦布尔靠欧洲一侧，其中的 88%是在凯梅尔布尔加兹。因此，安那托利亚所有的开挖废料每天必须穿过约 150km 的距离来倾倒。每天约有 3000 辆来自伊斯坦布尔其他各地
43、方的卡车满载开挖废料前往凯梅尔布尔加兹，从而导致时间的浪费并加重了环境污染。Table 4 Excavation volume occurred from ongoing railway systems in Istanbul通线路产生的开挖废料约有 1200 万 m 。所有隧道均采用新奥法（NATM）、土压平衡法表 4伊斯坦布尔建设中轨道交通线路开挖量Table 5 Existing dumping areas in Istanbul表 5伊斯坦布尔目前的垃圾倾倒区Another problem related to excavation is that the materials, obt
44、ained from EPBM machines(Fig. 6) and muddy areas, cannot be directly sent to dumping facilities. They have to be kept insuitable places, so that water can be drained off from the material and then sent to proper facilities.However, this causes muddy material to drop from trucks, causing increased litter in cities (Fig.7).和开挖相关的另一个问题是，来自土压平衡盾构机械和污泥区的废料（见图 6）不能直接倾倒，为使水能从中顺利排出并使用合适的处理设备，这些废料必须在合适的地方暂存。然而这
