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1、DESIGNING AND EVALUATING E-LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION: A REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS Chee Meng ThamJon M. WernerCollege of Business and EconomicsDepartment of ManagementUniversity of Wisconsin-WhitewaterUniversity of Wisconsin-WhitewaterWhitewater, WI 53190Whitewater, WI 53190E-mail: dantcmPhone: (
2、262) 472-2007FAX: (262) 472-4863E-mail: wernerjpost.uww.eduRunning Head: E-Learning in Higher EducationOriginal paper in the Management Education: Teaching & Instruction Track of the 2002 Midwest Academy of Management.The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance provided by William Drago, Rober
3、t Schramm, and L. Roger Yin.DESIGNING AND EVALUATING E-LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION: A REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONSAbstractIn the past decade, there has been tremendous growth in the availability of college and university courses taught entirely online (James, 1997). In this manuscript, we review issu
4、es that impact the effectiveness of such electronic courses. We first address design and delivery issues for online courses. We then present a framework for addressing the institutional, technological, and student issues that should be simultaneously addressed in order for online courses to be effec
5、tive. We also make recommendations concerning how to evaluate the effectiveness of online courses, and then discuss major constraints that can limit the effectiveness of such courses. We contend that the future success and viability of online coursework depends upon successfully addressing issues su
6、ch as those raised in this manuscript.The world has changed dramatically from earlier ages to todays highly technological world. For instance, since the discovery of electricity in the 17th century, the world has never been the same. Similarly, learning has also evolved from the traditional classroo
7、m to distance learning and now to online learning, where students learn in “invisible classrooms” (Phillips, 1998; Sutherland, 1999).Ever since the popularization of computer technology for home and office use, teaching methods have changed from plain lectures to multimedia presentations. With the a
8、dvancement of technology and the commercialization of cyberspace (also known as the Internet), the world has become a vast storehouse of information, and learning is no longer limited by distance, location, or physical existence. Barriers to global learning are being reduced with ever-changing techn
9、ology.With technological changes, educational institutions must also keep up in providing the ideal learning environment to meet changing demands, from changes in the traditional classroom, to the onset of the “Invisible Classroom.” Information technology has created a bridge, so that many people wh
10、o want to learn can now become “invisible” students. In this manuscript, we review the use of electronic learning in higher education. We first discuss issues involved with designing and delivering online learning. Next, we provide a framework to discuss critical institutional, technological, and st
11、udent issues that must be addressed for effective online learning to take place. Third, we deal with issues concerning the evaluation of online course effectiveness. Finally, we address some important additional constraints that can limit the effectiveness of online learning.DESIGNING AND DELIVERING
12、 LEARNING IN THE “INVISIBLE CLASSROOM”Online learning (or E-learning) offers many opportunities that never seemed possible before. The chance to learn from a reputable university from across the state or country can be extremely valuable. It does not require a typical student to make a major change
13、in lifestyle, nor does it requires the student to forgo a career or relocate a family to pursue his or her educational dream.Learning in an “invisible classroom” setting is a change that promotes unlimited access to information. It can also take away social and physical boundaries (like shyness, gen
14、der, race, location, etc.), leaving everyone on a more equal footing for learning and “competing” in a healthy manner. Everyone, far or near, can become a valuable asset for a successful and valuable learning experience.METHODS OF DELIVERYCommunication in education has most often been a one-way tran
15、smission. However, in higher learning, the educational communication should focus on whether the concept or application is reasonable or suitable based on the particular situation, rather than if it is right or wrong. Issues of ethics and morality become central to discussions in the business world
16、(Beauchamp & Bowie, 2001). There are less likely to be “model answers.” Instead, answers will depend on the analytical reasoning and sound judgment relevant to each particular situation. In the academic setting, then, there should be interactive transmissions that promote challenges, relevancy and d
17、ynamic creative thinking. In essence, this sets the “Greek philosophical learning arena” within a controlled electronic environment of sharing between learners.Determining whether interactive or non-interactive applications should be used as the method of lesson delivery is crucial to ensure that le
18、arning objectives are achieved effectively and efficiently, that is, whatever has been targeted as the desired learning outcomes (Arbaugh, 2000a; 2000b). Interactive applications like chat areas or bulletin boards allow the learner to gain a wider, live, and often immediate correspondence with peers
19、 and facilitators. The use of discussion forums in online programs aims to break down communication barriers by providing a conducive and non-threatening environment for students. The lack of face-to-face encounter allows students to vocally express constructive opinions and reasoning without the fe
20、ar of negative treatment or discrimination based on their gender, race, or nationality. Non-western students (especially those from Asia) have frequently been viewed as shy in a traditional classroom setting. These students can now express themselves without fear or resistance. One benefit in such a
21、n environment is that this allows course members to share and learn the “ropes of the world” without reservation.When the case study method is used in the “invisible classroom,” it has one distinctive feature that traditional classrooms are less likely to possess, i.e., the potential to exchange glo
22、bal experiences and shared knowledge among a diverse group. Critical thinking plays a vital part in discussing the real-time issues built into the case scenario. Every business decision has a profound impact globally in one way or another. For example, with the constant restructuring of companies th
23、rough mergers and buyouts, students can go beyond the case and discuss the impact not only on the local community, but also the real-time impact faced globally. On-line lecturing is now usually done using the available software (e.g., MS Office) or through other higher technology structures (satelli
24、te linkups, video conferencing, etc.). The effort, time, and cost spent become more valuable and should be handled with the utmost importance in meeting course objectives. The question becomes: what is the appropriate level of information dissemination through this medium? Relevancy, accuracy, and a
25、dequacy are the main factors that educators should consider in designing course material. The main disadvantage of online lecturing is the lack of “immediate” response from the audience on their level of acceptance, understanding and retention. Educators are sometimes guilty of adopting the “old way
26、” as the “right way” and therefore thinking this should be “the way” to do things. This is understandable to some extent, since no one knows for sure what is most appropriate, given that online learning is still considered to be in the infancy stage (James, 1997).An educator could design and create
27、a structured problem that organizes group learning. Besides the fundamentals of collaborative and cooperative learning, problem-based learning is another constructive process that promotes understanding of social and contextual factors. Greater understanding of these issues should influence student
28、learning (Gijselaers, 1995). Further, Wilkerson (1995) stated that a high quality problem-based learning environment is led by educators who:a) balance student direction with assistance,b) contribute knowledge and experience,c) create a pleasant learning environment, andd) simulate critical evaluati
29、on of ideas.In such an environment, the educator acts as a consultant who maintains close monitoring, but does not interfere with student efforts to address the problems at hand. Students are expected to act with initiative and enthusiasm, reason effectively, accurately and creatively with an integr
30、ated, flexible, usable knowledge base, and monitor and assess their own adequacy to achieve a desirable outcome. Research over many decades has found strong evidence for the effectiveness of distance learning as a method of delivery (Moore & Thompson, 1997). In choosing the medium for imparting know
31、ledge, educators need to consider the qualitative, quantitative, and technical nature of the material to be covered. Unfortunately, educators are sometimes swayed by “trendy and hip” technology/software, rather than focusing on what the learner can receive and absorb through these transmissions. Cer
32、tainly, any knowledge that is imparted has value, but the question becomes “how much and how well is it being absorbed?” (Kirkpatrick, 1994). Educators have to be aware and constantly mindful that technology should not “drive” their courses; instead, the course objectives and learning outcomes shoul
33、d be the driving forces.Student ProfilesUnderstanding the characteristics of “Invisible Students” is an important aspect of the online learning environment. Only recently has the focus on these learners become a widely discussed issue. Distance learners can be characterized as “dynamic individuals”
34、whose characteristics often change in response to both educational and life experiences (Gibson, 1992). What, then, is the generic profile of such a learner?According to Holmberg (1995), there “is no evidence to indicate that distance students should be regarded as a homogeneous group.” However, it
35、is widely agreed from various studies that the distance learner generally has more working experience and is older than a typical college student (Holmberg, 1995). One distinctive difference among students would be in their learning styles. A learning style is defined as “the way in which the learne
36、r receives and interacts with instruction and responds to the learning environment” (Billings, 1993). Further, Guild (1994) mentioned that educators should be reminded of the connection between national culture and the learning styles of their students, i.e., some learning styles are more or less li
37、kely to be found among individuals from a particular culture. With the increased globalization of learning in higher education, student profiles will continue to be dynamic and diverse (Altbach, 2000). Integrating the Institution, Technology, and Students for Effective Online LearningAccording to a
38、survey by the National Center for Education Statistics (1999): Of the 5,010 educational institutions in the U.S., 34% are currently offering distance education, with 20% planning such offerings within the next three years. With an institutional size of 10,000 students or more, 87% are currently offe
39、ring distance education, and 22% of institutions with a size of less than 3,000 are planning to offer distance education within three years.With the increasing demand for this form of learning, the institutions involved in online learning must consider crucial elements that will ensure their credibi
40、lity, reputation, and survivability (Best of the On-line, 2001; Phillips, 1998).SunTze once said, “know your enemy as you know yourself.” In terms of online learning, the “enemy” is not a person or item, but the factors that cause failures in education. Success in online learning comes about by brin
41、ging together at least three crucial factors, namely technology, the institution (including both administration and faculty), and students. By understanding the factors that foster online learning, learning objectives are more likely to be achieved.Figure 1The Online Learning EnvironmentOnline Learn
42、ingEffectivenessTechnologyInstitutionStudentsUsing the figure above, the online learning environment places heavy emphasis on these three factors. Ineffectiveness in any one of these factors will have an adverse effect on the successful conduct of learning. Merging these factors is a great challenge
43、 for institutions conducting online courses. According to Chickering and Gamson (1991) and Chickering and Ehrmann (1996), positive online-learning environments incorporate seven principles of good teaching practice. These include:a) encouraging students-faculty contact,b) encouraging cooperation amo
44、ng students,c) encouraging active learning,d) giving prompt feedback,e) emphasizing time on task,f) communicating high expectations, andg) respecting diverse talents and ways of learning.InstitutionBonk (2000) has aptly stated that online educators wear many “hats.” Some of the different hats that o
45、nline educators are donning include:a) The Technological Hat Using the available technology to enhance student learning is not an easy task for educators. Educators must be prepared to understand the application software and also the implications of technology for adopting different strategies in te
46、aching.b) The Pedagogical Hat Creativity is needed to design a course that brings students “nearer” in an online learning environment. In the invisible classroom, the tools/applications used to monitor or raise the intellectual skills of students require the educator to adopt the right tools and not
47、 simply use the tools that are available.c) The Social Hat The educator has to establish some form of rapport with the students. In the online environment, the technological communication tools should be used to establish a friendly, cohesive and comfortable learning environment. This is not easy, s
48、ince non-verbal messages cannot be detected through this medium. Educators wear this hat least because of the task-oriented setting of the online syllabus. However, this hat is important in allowing opportunities to increase student learning and ensure that student motivation levels remain high.Institutions not only have to provide training to the faculty in empowering them with the tools and skills to carry out their educational roles properly, but the faculty itself has to be mentally prepared to tackle the
