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1、Ethnic Internet Use among Chinese Students in the U.S. and Its implication for Cross-Cultural AdaptationAbstractThe growth of the Internet technologies has presented new challenges to traditional cross-cultural adaptation (CCA) research. The old conceptualization of ethnic media has been expanded dr
2、amatically in the new media environment. They include not only traditional immigrant media in host countries, but also a vast number of homeland publications that are available online to immigrants and sojourners. Past research suggested that ethnic media use deters the CCA process. This paper propo
3、ses that use of new online ethnic media may play a different role in CCA.Guided by uses and gratifications theory, this study investigates how individual differences (i.e., host language competency, lengthy of stay, acculturation attitudes, and loneliness) and Internet use motives influenced ethnic
4、Internet use of Chinese students in the U.S. Length of stay, Assimilation attitude, Social Involvement and Entertainment motives predicted Chinese students ethnic Internet use. The study also explored the relationship between ethnic Internet use and CCA. Even though no significant association was fo
5、und between the two, the result indicated some old conclusions reached in the traditional CCA research may need to be reevaluated in the Internet environment. IntroductionWith recent developments in communication technologies and globalization of the economy, cross-cultural adaptation (CCA) has beco
6、me a prominent social phenomenon that has attracted much attention from scholars of various disciplines. The conceptual linkage between communication and CCA has long been recognized. Communication is believed to serves as “an essential mechanism that connects people from another culture and the hos
7、t society” (Kim, 1997, p. 407). Several generally accepted conclusions regarding the centrality of communication in CCA have been reached in the past. First, each newcomers social communication activity consists of two basic communication processes: interpersonal communication and mass communication
8、 (Kim, 1977, 1988). Interpersonal communication is believed to have a greater acculturation function than the mass media (Gudykunst & Kim, 2003; Kim, 1988). Second, past research has demonstrated that host communication (i.e., interpersonal communication with members of host country, host media expo
9、sure) tends to accelerate CCA (i.e., Kim, 1977; Shah, 1991) whereas ethnic communication (i.e., contact with members of the ethnic group, ethnic media exposure) helps maintain ethnic ties and may deter the process of CCA (i.e., Kim, 1981, 1984; Nagata, 1969). Third, many scholars believe that the di
10、rection of CCA is toward assimilation and social integration. The growth of new communication technologies has presented new challenges to traditional CCA research. For example, the development and popularity of the Internet have made it necessary to reconsider the traditional concept of “ethnic med
11、ia,” which historically has referred to conventional media such as newspapers and TV stations in host countries that are sponsored by and targeted to ethnic groups (Constantakis-Vales, 1992). The global reach of the Internet enables newcomers to access homeland publications through the World Wide We
12、b conveniently (Chen, 2004). In this sense, the conceptualization of ethnic media has been expanded dramatically in the new media environment. They include not only traditional immigrant media in host countries, but also a vast number of homeland publications that are available online and probably m
13、ore influential to immigrants and sojourners.Furthermore, linking Internet use and CCA may challenge the dominant assumption that the ultimate direction of CCA is toward assimilation. The Internet provides more opportunities for newcomers to maintain their ethnic cultural links and cultural values.
14、Some scholars have argued that new technologies have been used to promote pluralism in many societies and may play an important role in reshaping the CCA patterns of immigrants and sojourners. The Internet minimizes the geographic and time differences between newcomers hometowns and the host country
15、. Through the Internet, newcomers can easily obtain information from their own countries and interact with others with similar interests and cultural backgrounds using their native languages. The strengthened ethnic tie may lead to a more culturally diverse society. U&G provides an appropriate frame
16、work for examining the relationship between Internet use and CCA. due to the following reasons. U&G is a needs-based media research approach. U&G scholars believe people use media to fulfill their basic needs or wants. Correspondently, one of the fundamental assumptions in CCA research is that human
17、s have an inherent drive to grow and adapt as they face challenges from their environment (Kim, 2002). In the process of adaptation, people experience a variety of needs. Cultural adaptation and needs satisfaction occur through communication. These assumptions are consonant with U&G notions. As the
18、Internet increasingly becoming an important communication tool around the world, it is imperative for CCA researchers to consider online communication when examining immigrants/sojourners communication behavior. This study is intended to bridge CCA and Internet research by examining the role of the
19、ethnic Internet use in the in the process of CCA of Chinese students in the United States. Hopefully it will provide some insights not only on how and why Chinese students use ethnic Internet, but also on the relationship between ethnic Internet use and CCA. Cross-Cultural AdaptationKim and Gudykuns
20、t (1988) defined CCA as a dynamic socialization process by which individuals interact with a new environment. The goal of CCA is to achieve an overall person-environment “fit” for maximization of ones social life chances. In her integrative cross-cultural adaptation theory, Kim (1988, 1995, 2001) pr
21、oposed intercultural transformation as the outcome variable of CCA, which consists three key factors: functional fitness, psychological health, and intercultural identity. Ward and colleagues (e.g., Searle & Ward, 1990; Ward & Kennedy, 1993, 1999; Ward, 1996, 1999) divided the outcomes of cross-cult
22、ural adaptation into two domains: psychological (emotional/affective) adaptation and sociocultural (behavioral) adaptation. According to Ward and Kennedy (1999), sociocultural adaptation refers to “the ability to fit in, to acquire culturally appropriate skills and to negotiate interactive aspects o
23、f the host environment” (p. 660). Psychological adaptation refers to a psychological well-being and contentment with the new cultural environment. These two adaptive outcomes appear to be the most important practical outcomes of the CCA process and correspond well with other CCA research. Therefore,
24、 sociocultural adaptation and psychological adaptation were the two outcomes of CCA on which this study focused.CCA research has been influenced by the ideological debate between assimilation and pluralism. The term assimilation emphasizes acceptance of the host culture by an immigrant/sojourner (Ki
25、m, 1995, 2002). A closely related term, acculturation, has been defined as the process by which individuals acquire some aspects of the host culture. Assimilation has been seen as the highest degree of acculturation. These two terms reflect the cultural orientation toward the host culture. In contra
26、st, the concepts of pluralism emphasize maintaining ethnic ties and original cultures. Pluralism leads to sustained ethnic identity and continued heterogeneity. Most social science researchers assume that acculturation is a natural phenomenon and that newcomers want to acculturate to the host cultur
27、e. This view, however, has been challenged since the 1970s. Some scholars argue that in a plural society such as the U.S., an individual has a choice in terms of whether or the extent to which he/she wishes to be acculturated (e.g., Berry, 1989; Jeffres & Hur, 1981). For example, some individuals or
28、 ethnic groups may want to maintain their ethnic culture while participating in mainstream society. This “pluralistic” view has gained increasing popularity among researchers during the past decades (e.g., Diesing, 1991; Thornston, 1996). The discussion about assimilation and pluralism has special i
29、mplications for this study because the Internet has been claimed to be a powerful communication technology with the potential to promote both cultural convergence and cultural pluralism simultaneously (Melkote & Liu, 2000). Some researchers have argued that cultural identities of ethnic groups are r
30、einforced in the Internet era as the Internet facilitates more constant and expanded cultural contacts beyond geographical boundaries. Fitzgerald (1992), for example, stated, “an ethnic groups identity, which was once dependent on specific physical places, and the particular experience available in
31、these spaces, has been significantly influenced by new media because communication technology facilitates time-space compression” (p. 320). Studying CCA in the new media environment may provide some new insights to this old debate.Ethnic Internet Use and CCAThe connection between mass media use and
32、CCA has been observed as scholars see CCA as a special type of socialization or resocialization (Gudykunst & Kim, 1984; Taft, 1977) and mass media as important socializing agents in society (Lasswell, 1948). Use of host mass media has been observed to promote the acculturation process (e.g., Kim, 19
33、88; Shah, 1991; Subervi-Velez, 1986). There are different views, however, on the relationship between ethnic media use and CCA in the literature. Some scholars argue that ethnic media use, in the long run, retards acculturation (e.g., Greenberg, 1983; Lee & Tse, 1994). Others believe that ethnic med
34、ia play a dual-role in the CCA process. On the one hand, ethnic media preserve the newcomers cultural heritage and strengthen their ethnic values and identities (Jeffres & Hur, 1983; Lee & Tse, 1994). On the other hand, ethnic media introduce newcomers to the host society by providing information ab
35、out the host culture and offering valuable tips on how to adjust to a new environment (Zhou & Cai, 2002). Past CCA studies have focused on traditional media such as newspaper, TV, radio, and magazines. To date, only a handful of studies can be located exploring the linkage between the Internet and C
36、CA. Boczkowski (1999), for example, investigated an online discussion group for Argentine expatriates and found that the group used a virtual community to reinforce their sense of belonging to their native culture. Similarly, Melkote and Liu (2000) examined the relationship between Chinese students
37、participation in a Chinese online discussion group and acculturation. They suggested that Chinese students and scholars depended on the online discussion group to understand themselves, their new environment, and events in their native country. A couple of recent studies also suggested an initial li
38、nk between Internet use and CCA. As mentioned earlier, Chens (2004) survey described the online communication patterns of international students. She found that international students preferred to read native news online. When seeking news online, they used native news websites more than U.S. news w
39、ebsites.Ye (2005) investigated the relationships between acculturative stress of East Asian international students and their use of the Internet. Ye found that, on average, students used “English-language Internet” more than “native-language Internet.” “English-language Internet” use was negatively
40、related to cultural shock, whereas “native-language Internet” use was positively related to cultural shock.These studies represented the initial attempts to uncover how Internet use is related to CCA, providing a first glance of the Internet use patterns among international students and some foundat
41、ion for this study.Based on the above literature review, this study investigates the relationships between individual factors, ethnic Internet use and CCA among Chinese students in the U.S. Due to the newness of the subject, the study is primarily exploring in nature. Therefore only research questio
42、ns are proposed.Research QuestionsOne of the main goals of this study is to examine the role of ethnic Internet use in CCA. Past literature suggests that ethnic media use contributes to greater culture maintenance and may deter CCA (e.g., Kim, 1984, 1988; Nagata, 1969; Shah, 1991). However, this con
43、clusion has been derived largely from studies that examined CCA in traditional media environments (e.g., including television and newspapers). The Internet may influence CCA in a different way than do traditional media. Recent literature provides evidence for a more pluralistic view of CCA, which su
44、ggests that ethnic media consumption and ethnic persistence may not necessarily hinder learning about the host culture and inhibit CCA (Melkote & Liu, 2000). Therefore, my first research question asks:RQ1a: What is the relationship between ethnic Internet use and sociocultural adaptation of Chinese
45、students? RQ1b: What is the relationship between ethnic Internet use and psychological adaptation of Chinese students?This study was conducted from the U&G perspective, which posits that along with individual differences, motivation is an important component to consider when explaining peoples media
46、 consumption. Four individual factors identified as being important in past CCA research were included in the study. They are: host language/English competence, length of stay, acculturation attitudes, and loneliness. U&G scholars believe that motives prompt a person to purposefully select certain m
47、edia and media content for consumption in order to satisfy needs behind those motives (e.g., Katz, et al., 1974). A host of U&G studies have identified various media use motives such as information seeking, entertainment, arousal, social interaction, escape, companionship, and pass time (e.g., Green
48、berg, 1974; Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000; Rubin, 1983). In addition to general media use motives, prior CCA research suggests that acculturation motivation and ethnic maintenance motivation are likely to be salient in the CCA context. Reece and Palmgreen (2000), for example, identified eight motives f
49、or Indian students use of U.S. television, including the motives of “acculturation” and “reflection on values”. To investigate whether and how individual differences and Internet motives together explain Chinese students Internet use, the following research question is posed:RQ2: How do individual differences (i.e., English competence, length of stay, acculturation attitudes, and degree of loneliness) and Internet-use motives predict ethnic Internet use?MethodProcedure and participants An el
