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1、On Differences of Taboos between Chinese and Western CulturesChapter I Introduction With the globalization and Chinas wider opening to the outside world, a multiple Chinese people begin to learn English. They have a good command of English pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. However, when contact
2、ing westerners, they still find it difficult to communicate smoothly and effectively. In fact, learning a language is inseparable from knowing about its culture. Learning a culture means that we should make it clear what things we may do or not and which words we can say or not under the specific ci
3、rcumstance. As for those we mustnt do or say definitely, we call them taboosa self-restriction on our behaviors, a phenomenon which occurs in almost all cultures. According to sociology, there are differences among cultures in different countries, so it is with taboos. Because of the differences of
4、cultural taboos, misunderstanding may rise, though language used in communication may be flawless. Because of differences of cultural taboos, friction may increase to affect the relationships with others. In order to be successful in cross-cultural communication as well as to promote frequent exchan
5、ges between China and the West, it is necessary for us to know the differences of taboos between Chinese and western cultures.Chapter II General Views on Taboos2.1 The Definition of Culture Culture has been studied and defined in many ways by scholars representing various disciplines. In 1871, E.B.T
6、aylor, a famous British anthropologist, defined culture as “the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, customs and many other capabilities and habits acquired by members of society.” Britannica Concise Encyclopedia gives such an explanation of culture “It refers to the in
7、tegrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that is both a result of and integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations.” (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2002)Culture has played a crucial role in human evolution, allowing human beings to adap
8、t the environment to their own purposes rather than depend solely on natural selections to achieve adaptive success. Every human society has its own particular culture, or social cultural system. Cultural differences distinguish one society from another. As one of the integrated parts of culture, ta
9、boos can distinguish different countries as well.2.2 The Definition and Origin of TaboosTaboos, which is also written as tabu or tapu, is of Polynesian origin and was first noted by Capital James Cook during his 1771 visit to Tonga. In his account of visit, Cook wrote, “Not one of them would sit dow
10、n or eat a bit of anythingOn expressing my surprise at this, they were all taboos, as they said.” After he introduced it into English, this word has traveled as widely as Cook himself and is now used throughout the English-speaking world, meaning ban or prohibition on something that is regarded for
11、religious or other reasons as not to be done, touched, used, etc. (Wan Jianzhong, 2001)It was said that a taboo could be placed on an object, a person, a place, or a word that was believed to have inherent power above the ordinary. This power was called mana, which could only be approached by specia
12、l priests. Often the mana of a taboo is so great that the offender will suffer punishment, even death, merely through fear of its power.In fact, taboos derived from fear of mysterious power, from the experience that human beings struggle against the nature and also from the social customs that peopl
13、e develop in their communications in the long run.2.3 Characteristics of Taboos2.3.1 PrimitivenessIn primitive society, low level of social productive forces led to peoples limitations on cognition. With regard to taboos, the theme of primitive culture, peoples cognition upon it was characterized by
14、 subjectivity, backwardness and blindness. When facing the great and mysterious nature, people had no choices but plunged into the primitive, blind nature worship.2.3.2 MysteryThis characteristic of taboos stemmed from peoples confusion over various natural phenomena. They used their own imagination
15、s to intensify the mystery and sanctity. Actually, there is no need for people to ask what essence of taboo is because talking about taboos has become a taboo. The mystery of taboo made itself exert great restrictive influence on human society.2.3.3 RestraintTaboos, like laws, have built an insurmou
16、ntable obstacle in peoples heart and command peoples behaviors as a silent order. Initially, the breaking of a taboo usually required extermination of the offender or some sorts of ceremonial purification. Later, groups or teams shouldered the responsibility of the punishment. Modern taboos, to some
17、 extent, have become the social psychology to restrict people behavior. This restraint is beyond the reach of power from religion, moral and laws.2.3.4 Inheritability Taboos have been passed on from generation to generation. Although being considered as a kind of culture without elegance, they widel
18、y exist in social psychology and peoples spirits. The blindness and mystery of taboos provided the premise and foundation for its inheritability.Chapter III Specific Differences of Taboos between Chinese and Western Cultures 3.1 Taboos on Food and DrinksTaboo food and drinks are food and drinks whic
19、h people abstain from consuming for religious or cultural reasons.In China, there is hardly taboo food except some special food of minority ethnic groups; for example, Hui ethnic group dont eat pork for the religious reason. While in the West, it is forbidden to eat some food made of animals heads,
20、feet and viscera. The meat of some special animals is also forbidden to eat, for example, the meat of dogs, cats and snakes. Dogs and cats are pets and sincere companions in the eyes of westerners, but dogs meat is very common in China. Consumption of snakes also has a long history in China where it
21、 is seen as a special culinary dish while snake symbolizes evil things originating from the Bible in the West.When we talk about taboos on drinks, we should mention wine and alcohol. Chinese people like drinking spirits in the party even till they are drunk. Theres a saying goes“酒逢知己千杯少”which means
22、the more you drink, the more excitement you and friends will get. In the West, being drunk in the party is a taboo because drunken people usually have disgraceful behavior and do shameful things. In addition, what kind of wine or alcohol westerners drink depends on the occasions and dishes: cocktail
23、s or aperitif before dinner, wine during dinner, brandy or whiskey after dinner. During a brand feast, they will change a kind of wine with every dish, and people drink champagne to celebrate victory or success.As for the ways of eating and drinking, there are also different taboos. In China, its im
24、polite to dump or tap bowls and plates with chopsticks especially when you are a guest, because people believe that is the humble behavior of beggars. Its improper to insert chopsticks upright onto the vessels since this will be viewed as an evil presage and unique way to show esteem and care for th
25、e dead. It isnt polite to pass food with your chopsticks directly to somebody elses chopsticks. Only at funerals are the bones of the cremated body given in that way from person to person. In the West, its a taboo to make sounds by knocking the fork against the knife, especially by knocking the fork
26、 or knife against the water glass for it is believed that this behavior will bring about misfortunes. Spilling the salt on the table is also a taboo because its a sign that evil spirits are trying to take away the households salt. To avoid them, it is wise to throw a pinch of salt over your left sho
27、ulder since that is the side where the spirits live. (Harry Collis, 2004)Knowing about taboos on food and drinks can help us avoid embarrassments when dining and the basic principles of catering etiquette can help us perform better with foreigners in the future.3.2 Taboos on LanguageSome words and e
28、xpressions must be avoided because traditions or social custom strongly frowns on their use. These are verbal taboos. Violating a verbal taboo is offensive and would cause strong disapproval. Cross-cultural communications necessitate us to know about these different taboos.3.2.1 Taboos on Salutation
29、sChinese people have the custom of showing respect to elders. Calling these peoples first names is a great taboo. One can imagine the reaction of an adult if a child were to call grandparents by his or her first name or a student to do the same in calling a teacher. A quick reprimand and possible ev
30、en a spanking for the child would be sure to follow. However, English-speaking people usually address others by using the first name no matter the person is of roughly the same age or of different ages. Its very common to hear a child calling a much older person his name directly and people of diffe
31、rent social status do the same as well. In the eyes of westerners, it is not a sign of disrespect but equality. We can infer from the above that the Chinese custom of addressing members of ones family relatives or close neighbors as“大叔” 、“二哥” 、“三姑”.Its unbearable to call their names directly. In Eng
32、lish, the name alone, whether it be for a man or a woman, would ordinarily be enough. Addressing older relatives Uncle Tom or Aunt Lucy is of exception, but usually the given name not the family name is used. It should be mentioned that in English, Brother Joseph or Sister Mary would commonly be und
33、erstood as referring to a person belonging to a Catholic group or a religious society.Another taboo in Chinese culture is to call a persons name rather than his title (if he has one). An employee would be fired if he calls his managers full name. Common Chinese form of address is the use of peoples
34、position or occupations, such as“赵校长” 、“李院长” 、“尚老师”. But one seldom hears English speakers addressing others as “Chancellor Green”, “Minister Smith” or “Teacher Lee”. In English, only a few occupations or titles would be used: “Doctor” is common for those who are qualified in medical profession, and
35、 “Judge” for those authorized to try cases in law courts. “Governor” and “President” may be used for those who hold such offices. Finally, in China, its impolite to attract a strangers attention by saying like “Hi, you!” We have “同志” and the now fashionable“师傅”. Then what do people do in English if
36、such a need arises? Depending on the situation, English custom might suggest using some expressions as “Excuse me”, “Pardon me”. Often they simply clear their throats loudly or make some noises or gestures to attract others attention. (Deng Yanchang and Liu Runqing, 2003)3.2.2 Taboos on Topics of Co
37、nversationsThere are rare taboo topics in Chinese daily conversations. Chinese people value the intimacy, amiability and close relationships among friends, relatives and colleagues. It is free to talk about anything from age, income, marriage to politics. However, westerners have a strict rule of as
38、king age, salary and marital status. Its forbidden to ask someone if they are married, have children or whether they are involved in a relationship. Because in the earlier history of America, people were evaluated by the number of children they had, by their marital status and by the amount of salar
39、y they made. In order to make everyone feel equal, it has become a taboo to mention these topics in conversations with strangers. The reason why age is not discussed is that old age means less value. So some either refuse to divulge their ages or they will lie and shave several years off their real
40、ages and say theyre younger than what they are.In the West, its a taboo to ask questions about personal matters as we often do in China even though youre friends because westerners place a high value on privacy. In English there is a saying “A mans house is his castle.” No one should come in without
41、 permission. So it is with his life and personal affairs. To ask questions about these would be considered invading an individuals personal life. As non-native speakers, we should be aware of some expressions from westerners to stop further questions. For example, if a person says, “I am going out”,
42、 one should not ask “where”. If he says, “I have an appointment”, it would be improper to ask “with whom” or “what kind of appointment it is.”3.2.3 Taboos on Body LanguagePeople communicate not only through verbal language, but also through non-verbal language which includes gestures, eye contact, f
43、acial expressions and physical touches. Taboos exist in that aspect varying from country to country. In China, people intend to stand closer than westerners when conversing. Even acquaintances have physical contact, not to mention good friends. They may pat ones arm to convey a kind of encouragement
44、 or intimacy. In the West, the most important thing to remember is that most people dont like conversing in a close distance which will make them feel uncomfortable. Physical contact is also avoided in conversations among ordinary friends. Merely touching someone may cause an unpleasant reaction. If
45、 one touches another person accidentally, she usually apologizes in this way “Sorry, excuse me.” Physical contact between members of the same sex in the West is a delicate one. Once past childhood, the holding of hands, or walking with an arm around anothers shoulder is not considered proper. The im
46、plication is homosexuality, and homosexuality generally arouses strong social disapproval in western countries. On the contrary, there are so many people of same sex, especially girls and women, holding hands and walking arm in arm in China. Therefore, its little wonder that many foreigners are surp
47、rised to say therere many homosexuals in China. (Jia Yuxin, 1997)Gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making gesture itself can mean something different from that intended. Here are examples: Stamping ones foot means anger, irritation and frustration in China while im
48、patience in the West; staring at someone refers to curiosity or sometimes surprise but that will make westerners embarrassed. Performer clapping at the same time audience applauds signifies appreciation from the speaker and mutual positive feelings together with audience in Chinese peoples opinion w
49、hile being immodest in the eyes of English-speakers.From the salutations, topics of conversations to body language, we have the better idea of what to do and what not to do upon taboo language. Properly conversing with westerners while avoiding taboos is a good start in cross-cultural communications.3.3 Taboos on ColorsPeople live in a colorful world. They give colors different meanings, such as the positive meaning and passive
