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1、The difference between English and Chinese and translationEnglish and Chinese belong to two different language families: English, the Indo-European family and Chinese, the Sino-Tibetan family. The two languages also have different cultural backgrounds. Translation is an interlingual and intercultura
2、l transfer and multi-dimensional contrastive studies of the two language and cultures are therefore essential. Therefore, before translation, we should pay attention to the cultural elements.According to the difference between English and Chinese translation, there are ten pairs of features which we
3、 should take into consideration when we translate English to Chinese.1 Synthetic and Analytic (综合语和分析语)A synthetic language is characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms to express grammatical relationships.An analytic language is marked by a relatively frequent use of function
4、words, auxiliary verbs, and changes in word order to express syntactic relations, rather than of inflected forms. Modern English has become a analytic language, but Chinese is a typical analytic language.Inflection(变化词形), word order（安排词序）and the use of function words(运用虚词) are employed as the three
5、grammatical devices in building English sentences. 1.1 Inflectional vs. Non-inflectionalIn English, nouns, pronouns and verbs are inflected. Such grammatical meaning as parts of speech, gender, case, person, tense, aspect, voice, mood and non-finite verb, can bta,expressed by the use of inflected fo
6、rms with or without the help of function words and word order, whereas in Chinese this is generally not true: the above grammatical meanings are mostly implied in contexts or between the lines, though often with the help of word order and function words,e.g They told me that by the end of the year t
7、hey would have been working together for thirty years. 他们告诉我，到（那年）年底，他们在一起工作就有三十年了。1.2 Words Order: Flexible vs. InflexibleWord order in English is not so rigid as in Chinese. More ways of inversion grammatical or rhetorical, are often seen in English. e.g Interrogative inversion(疑问倒装)（1）What in the
8、 world do you mean? 你的意思究竟是什么啊？（2）Exclamatory inversion (惊叹倒装) What a beautiful voice you have! 你有多么好的嗓音啊！The flexible word order in English is mainly the result of the grammatical concord of words in the sentence which is achieved by inflection. When expressing temporal or logical sequences, Englis
9、h may make full use of inflections and function words to make its word order flexible, while Chinese, with the help of function words ,arranges its word order according to certain rules of temporal or logical sequences：Category two contains only four items, and 2 I shall say no more about them excep
10、t that,3 since they are under consideration,4 we should not let the grass grow under feet, but attempt, as early as possible, to arrive at a common understanding in the interest of humanity，按照汉语的思维习惯重新排序，组成三个句子，顺序为1-3-5-4-2 （.为了人类的利益，我们应该不失时机，力图尽快达成共识。除此之外，别的我就不多说了。）1.3 The Use of Function Words：Eng
11、lish and Chinese Make Use of Different Types of Function Words.English function words include the article, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, coordinators and subordinators. While Chinese function words include particles, connectives and prepositions. Each has its own features in the use of these words.
12、e.g They are students of our school. 他们是本校的部分学生。 They are the students of our school. 他们是本校的全体学生。 Chinese is rich in particles ,such as aspect particles (动态助词：着，了，过)，structural particles (结构助词：的，地，得)and emotional particles (语气助词，呢，吗，吧）e.g 这回我可亲眼看见啦！（感叹语气）This time I ve actually seen it for myself.En
13、glish has a large number of prepositions and prepositional phrases which are often in use, while Chinese has a few prepositions which are mostly “borrowed” from their corresponding verbs. e.g: Peter drew his knife on the robber. 彼得拔刀向那个强盗坎去。Who ,whom ,whose, that ,what ,which ,when ,where, why and h
14、ow, there are conjunctive and relative pronouns are used as coordinating and subordinating in English ,this phenomenon is rare in Chinese.e.g. Practically all substance expand when headed and contract whencooled. 几乎所有的物质都是热胀冷缩的。1.4 Intonation vs. ToneThe above three grammatical devices, inflection,
15、word order, and the use of function words, have much to do with the role of phonetic features in the two language.English is an intonation language while Chinese is a tone language.2 Rigid vs. Supple (刚性与柔性)English sentence structure is composed of none phrase(s) and verb phrase(s). It has become an
16、 invariable custom to have a subject before a verb , and therefore a sentence does not contain a subject and a verb is felt to be incomplete. The subject(s) must agree with the predicate verb (V) in person and number, etc. This rigid SV concord forms the kernel of sentence .with the predicate verb c
17、ontrolling other main members. English sentences, however long and complicated, can be reduced to five basic patterns: SV, SVP, SVO, SVoO, SVOC. English sentence can be summarized as these five patterns or their variants(变式), expansion(扩展), omission, combination (组合) , or inversion.English subject-p
18、redicate structure appears rigid as a result of certain grammatical bonds, including the patternization and the principles of grammatical and notional concord.Chinese however, is relatively free from the government of SV concord and formal markers. The subjectpredicate structure is unusually varied,
19、 flexible and therefore complicated and supple.The subject of a Chinese sentence is varied, often optional:文章翻译完了。（受事主语）This article has been translated.累得我站不起来了。（无主句）Im so exhausted that I cant stand up.The predicate of a Chinese sentence is also varied and complicated:e.g 1 天高云淡。（形容词作谓语）The sky is
20、 high and the clouds are pale. 2 他出国留学去了。（连动式谓语） He has gone aboard for further studies .In addition, there are quite a few “illogical” expressions in Chinese :晒衣服：to bask in the sun 恢复疲劳：to get refreshed 晒太阳：to sun ones clothes 恢复健康：to recover ones healthMore ambiguity can be found in Chinese due t
21、o the lack of connectives, inflections and other grammatical markers:1 他欠你的钱（他+欠你钱/ 他欠你的+钱）2 热爱人民的总理（热爱+人民的总理/热爱人民的+总理）In addition, the suppleness of the Chinese language also manifests itself in the “run-on” sentences, which is composed of the “full sentence” and the “minor sentence”.3. Hypotactic
22、VS Paratactic (形合与意合)Hypotactic is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives. Parataxis is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them.To clarify the relations between words phrases or clauses, English
23、 more often resorts to overt cohesion（显性接应）frequently using various cohesive ties such as relatives, connectives, prepositions, and some others.e.g When I try to understand what it is that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect, it seems to me that there are two causes, o
24、f which one goes much deeper than the other.By the contrast, Chinese more frequently relies on convert coherence and context, focusing on temporal or logical sequences. Chinese more often resorts to word order, contracted sentence, four-character expressions, and some grammatical or rhetorical devic
25、es such as repletion, antithesis, and parallelism. Compare English with Chinese:人（若）不犯我，我（则）不犯人。We will not attack unless we are attacked. 聪明一世，糊涂一时。（对偶）Smart as a rule, but this time a fool.4 Complex Vs. Simplex( 繁复与简短)With plenty of subordinate clauses and phrases, English has comparatively longer
26、 and more complicated sentences than Chinese. English sentence-building is characterized by an “architecture style”(楼房建筑法)with extensive use of longer or subordinate structures, while Chinese, a “chronicle style”(流水记事法)with frequent use of shorter or composite structures. Therefore, English sentence
27、s are often complex while Chinese sentences are often simplex. e.g In the doorway lay at least twelve umbrellas of all sizes and colors. 门口放着一堆雨伞，少说也有十二把，五颜六色，大小不一。(cf. 门口放着至少十二把五颜六色，大小不一的雨伞。)5 Impersonal VS. Personal (物称与人称)English often goes with an impersonal style, in order to hide writer and re
28、ader and some features of impersonal are passives, begin with it and abstract nouns. By contrast, Chinese prefers to use a personal style, which is featured by much more actives in form but passives in sense, personal subjects, or subjectless and subject-omitted sentences when the subject is self ev
29、ident, unknown or implied in the context.1 An idea suddenly struck me. 我突然想到了一个主意。2 Alarm began to take entire possession of him. 他开始变得惊恐万状。6 Passive Vs. Active (被动与主动)(1) Passives of various forms are frequently used in English mainly due to the following reasons: (1) when the agent of an action is
30、 self-evident or unknown, it is unnecessary or impossible to mention the agent. (2) Syntactic factors: for cohesion, balance and focuses, and weight.( 3) Rhetorical factors: for variation(.4) Stylistic factors: more passive in informal writing ,notably in the objective, non-personal style of scienti
31、fic articles, news items, and government communication.By contrast, Chinese often use active forms including those in passive sense. e. There are some reasons for the limited use of the Chinese passive forms.Instead, Chinese generally prefer to use active forms; beside there are many other ways to d
32、enote passive sense which is usually expressed in the English passive form.1)Notional passives: 这锅饭能吃十个人。(不说“这锅饭能被十个人吃”) A pot of rice like this can feed 10 people.2）Subjectless or subject-omitted sentences 为什么总把这些麻烦事推给我？Why should all the unpleasant jobs be pushed onto me ?3) Using generic persons(
33、通称或泛称)人们普遍认为 . It is generally considered that.7. Static Vs. Dynamic (静态与动态)English makes more use of nouns, adjective and preposition, and is therefore more static. Conversely, Chinese often employs verbs, and therefore more dynamic. 1 The doctors extremely quick arrival and uncommonly careful exam
34、ination of the patient brought about his very speedy recovery. 医生迅速到达，并非常仔细地检查了病人， 因此病人很快就康复了。The conversion of the English nominal style into the Chinese verbal, e.g. English nouns converted into Chinese verbs, adjectives into adverbs, etc., is often employed in translation e.g He is a good eater a
35、nd sleeper. 他能吃能睡。He has someone behind him. 有人给他撑腰。8 Abstract Vs. Concrete （抽象与具体）In English, nominalization often results in abstraction. The method of abstract diction is found in frequent use of abstract nouns. By contrast, Chinese prefers to use concrete or specific words and employs a “downtoe
36、arth style” expressing abstract ideas often by metaphors, similes, allegories, or other device for making a thing plain. e.g I marveled at the relentless determination of the rain. 雨无情地下个不停，我感到惊异。We also use Conversion of English abstract words into Chinese concrete words, figurative expressions or
37、verbs. e.g He had surfaced with less visbility in the policy decisions. 在决策过程中，他已经不那么抛头露面了。9. Indirect VS. Direct (间接与直接)The wider use of such device as euphemism, understatement, litotes, indirect negation, periphrasis as well as the impersonal style and abstract makes English more indirect than Ch
38、inese.9.1 Euphemism(委婉)Compared with Chinese, English euphemism is widely use in all kinds of subjects,e.g sanitary engineer( = garbage man)清洁工 2. meat technologist(=butcher) 屠户9.2 Understatement（克制陈述）A statement which is not strong enough to express the full or true facts or feelings, i.e. makes bi
39、g thing seem trifle, particularly common in English, is known as understatement. For example, an Englishman will say “I have a little house in country. ” Finally, you will find that the little house is a place with 300 bedrooms.9.3 LitotesLitotes is a way of expressing a thought by its opposite, in
40、Chinese there are many litotes, such as “未尝不可”，“难免错误” “无不遗憾”e.g To my no small astonishment, I found the house on fire.我发现房子着火了，这使我大吃一惊。9.4 Indirect Negation（间接否定）A strange feature of the syntax of subordination in colloquial English is the transfer of the negative from a subordinate that-clause whe
41、re semantically it belongs to the main clause. e.g. “I do not think he will come.” instead of “I think he will not come”. But in Chinese we often say that“我想他不会来” instead of “我不想他来”.Other ways of using affirmative forms to express negative meanings are often found in implied subjunctive, disjunctive
42、 questions, ellipsis, swearword, and ironical idioms.e.g You could have come at a better time. 你来得不是时候。9.5 Tactful Implication(婉转暗示)English speakers are often careful not to case offence or upset people in their expression, which leave gaps in the development of thoughts.e.g. It can be worse.还可以。凑合吧
43、。You are late for the last time.你被解雇了。9.6 PeriphrasisPeriphrasis or circumlocution is the roundabout expression in speaking or writing, i.e. the use of long or many words, phrases, or unclear expression when short simple ones are all that is needed. While Chinese generally prefers to be straightforw
44、ard.e.g In London there reighs a complete absence of really reliable news.(=There is no reliable news in London.) 伦敦没有可靠的消息。By contrast with English, Chinese has less indirect modes of expression as the above, but other means such as polite expressions and self-depreciatory expression are often used
45、. 贵姓 your name 拜访 call on 令尊 your father 奉告 inform贱姓李，请问尊客贵姓？Im Li, Could I have your name?10 Substitutive Vs. Repetitive (替换与重复)Repetition of words in English is generally more or less abnormal and objectionable except that it is rhetorical or significant. To avoid repetition, English generally emp
46、loys substitution, ellipsis, variation, and some other devices.10.1 Substitution(替代)English often uses proforms or substitution to avoid repetition. While Chinese often repeat the same words or clause substituted.e.g Translation from English into Chinese is not so easy as that (=translation)from Eng
47、lish into French.(名词性代替) 英译汉不如英译法容易。10.2 Ellipsis（省略）English usually leaves out the same words from sentences to avoid repetition. While Chinese often repeats the same words.e.g Ambition is the mother of destruction as well as of evil.野心不仅是罪恶的根源，也是毁灭的根源。10.3 Variation（变换）English often uses synonyms
48、or nearsynonyms, super ordinates, hyponyms or general words to avoid repetition, while Chinese prefers repeats the same word.John has bought a new Ford. He practically lives in the car.约翰给自己买了一部新的福特牌汽车。他几乎就住在这部汽车里。Chinese, however, is more tolerant of repetition. Reiterative devices such as reduplication, antithesis and parallelism are often used in Chinese.10.4 Reduplication(重叠)Chinese often employs various patterns of character-reduplication for rhetorical or other purpose, while English has
