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1、Translating Sensitive Texts: Cultural Perspective Abstract: Translation is a social activity. As such it is necessary also to consider social and cultural factors in the translating process. Such considerations are essential with texts concerning sensitive topics which may violate the norms of targe
2、t cultures. This paper deals with the translation of texts with sexual references from English into Chinese. It points out that when two languages differ in their presentation of subject matters, distinctive translation approaches should be used in order to make the target text conform to the target
3、 culture. Based on an authentic example, the paper presents problems in such English-Chinese translations and discusses their implication for Translation Studies. Key Words: sensitive texts translation, target cultures, euphemistic expressions, deforming forces1. Introduction:1.1 Cultural difference
4、s between western and eastern ways of tackling sex-related topics both in writing and in speech.The subject of translating sexually suggestive texts is discussed extensively in the literature. The subject is more of an issue for translation scholars in Oriental countries than the West, possibly beca
5、use of cultural differences between Western and Eastern ways of tackling sex-related topics both in writing and in speech. Translating these topics from English into Chinese is a case in point. Whereas sexual references are not considered highly sensitive in the English-speaking world, and sexually
6、suggestive jokes are quite common among friends, the picture is different in Chinese feudal society. In the ancient Chinese culture, especially in the feudal Chinese culture, there used to be too many shackles for freedom of oomph, and the least selectivity of sexual partners. Sex is a crude topic w
7、hich is not expected to crop up in some circumstances. Deliberating flouting of this subtle rule of socialization easily upsets people. 1.2 The brief introduction of sensitive text translation study touched upon by some Chinese Scholars The difficulty of translating this type of subject matter from
8、Chinese into English has been touched briefly upon by Chinese scholars, such as Liu (1993) and Kao (1994). Typically, they use context-free and isolated examples of euphemistic reference to sex in Chinese proverbs or idioms and suggest how they might be rendered into English. Ke (1999) goes in for a
9、 philosophical explanation of the cultural differences in the way sex is tackled in Chinese and in translation from Chinese. Ke puts it as follows: “educated Chinese have a distinct aversion to writing about sex.This puritanical attitude towards sex is still apparent today in some translations publi
10、shed in China.” (Ke 1999:13) .1.3 The importance of awareness of cultural values inherent in language culturesIt goes for all topics and subject matters that translators need to be aware of cultural values inherent in language cultures. The reality is that some concepts are more readily expressed in
11、 some languages. Likewise, social constraint has limited the way in which sex surfaces in particular languages. Lung (1998) attributed, in passing, the reasons for mistranslation and under-translation to pragmatic differences between Chinese and English. 1.4 The significance of context-sensitiveness
12、 for good translationGood translation is context-sensitive. Quality translation considers each source text as a text in a specific situation. This situation must be analyzed in terms of addressee(s), the relations between the participants and their expectations, etc. as these are all components of t
13、he communicative event. A broad concept of culture is the way one particular group of people think, express, and behave. 1.5 The relationship between cultural specificity and sensitivityIn Simmss discussion of “sensitivity” as a socio-semiotic entity, he maintains that “no text is sensitive but “thi
14、nking” makes it so”, and that “thinking is intrinsic to language as experienced by humans”. He then deduces that “all texts are at least potentially sensitivewhether this potential is realized depends on historical or cultural contingency”. 1 Cultural specificity will thus be one of the major determ
15、inants for making a text sensitive. In such contexts, translators must assess how the source text is perceived and received in terms of content and language style in the target culture. When receptor cultures exercise stricter definitions of sensitive material, it is necessary to make adjustments to
16、 the target audience.2. Overt sexual references: English vs. Chinese2.1 How the cultural beliefs determine a languages expression The anthropological literature has it that language is an ingrained part of culture. According to Edward Sapir, the cultural beliefs and values of a language community so
17、metimes determine how a language is composed and what it can express. “ In a sense, the network of cultural patterns of a civilization is indexed in the language which expresses that civilizationLanguage is a guide to “social reality”. Though language is not ordinarily thought of as of essential int
18、erest to the students of social science, it powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes. Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language
19、 which has become the medium of expression for their societyThe fact of the matter is that the “real world” is to a large extent unconsciously built upon on the language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality; the
20、worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached.” 2 This is relevant to language professionals in that language should not be viewed only as grammatical arrangements of word forms that create meaning. Instead, the loaded cultural
21、 values of languages and their users must be considered a prerequisite for the appropriate user of languages. We may illustrate the way cultural values are built into language in action as follows: It is not unusual to have elementary Chinese learners of Japanese who wish to learn phrases expressing
22、 “I am good-looking”. Such expressions are grammatically feasible in Japanese. However, it would be inconceivable for any Japanese (who are courteous and modest) or even foreigners who have a good command of Japanese to verbalize such an idea.2.2 More ready and overt expressions in English vs. Euphe
23、mistic expression in ChineseIn the same way concepts of love, emotion, fear, sex, and intimacy are more readily and overtly expressed-both linguistically as well as para-linguistically-in Western societies. In general, Westerners are less inhibited in expressing such sensitive and taboo ideas. Trans
24、lating these sensitive concepts from an open to a conservative society, requires a tacit understanding and tactful use of both source and target languages. One could argue that some English expressions should, ideally, not be translated into conservative cultures such as Chinese. But in reality, it
25、is a well-known problem in translational tasks and situations. In the production of Chinese translations of taboo expressions, a transfer must be at the very least taken into account the degree of acceptability of the written and spoken norms of Chinese. In such a process of linguistic transfer proc
26、ess there is a need to coat the message with an appreciation of the way in which sensitive issues are presented within the confines of a set of cultural norms. Unfortunately, these norms are usually acquired subconsciously rather than learned consciously.2.3 Discussing the translation of euphemistic
27、 expressionsDiscussing the translation of euphemistic expressions, Kao (1994:172) states that Chinese are “good at indirection of speech” and that “euphemisms figure prominently in the Chinese tongue.” He also maintains that “this tradition of decorative rhetoric” has been found in Chinese ancient w
28、ritings. These speech features are markedly cultural. Although language change is an on-going phenomenon, euphemistic usage seems to be quite constant in Chinese and, presumably in many other conservative cultures.Literary works in ancient China tend to present sexual images in a misty or poetic sty
29、le. Typical metaphors for intercourse are 云雨 (Literally: cloud and rain), 鱼水之欢 (Literally: the joy of fish in water, meaning a mingling and attached relation between lovers) and 采花(Literally: pick flowers). Interestingly, 采花贼 (flower thief) is the common term for molesters in ancient China. Kao (199
30、4) deals with a similar topic in translation, and quotes 寻花问柳 (meaning literally in search of flowers and willows) for “acts of visiting brothels” in Chinese ancient literature. These subtle references to sex are ingrained in Chinese ancient writing. They are found frequently in traditional romantic
31、 writings in ancient China, especially in the famous works written by those who have experienced the feudal life in ancient China. These stylized sexual references should not be flouted. The custom of using indirect and metaphorical references to sex is reflected in the subtleties of Chinese languag
32、e. The unwillingness to discuss the taboo subject of sex extends even to small talk. Kao also states that “It is a happy coincidence when, properly understood, a euphemistic expression finds its equivalent in another language. More often than not the translator has to resort to explication, paraphra
33、sing, annotation, and other tricks of the trade to get across the meaning of the original. It is no different from the task of rendering idioms in general” (Kao 1994:178).Euphemistic expressions are cultural and language-bound. What is considered taboo in one culture may not be in another culture, s
34、o sometimes it is not necessary to search for equivalent in terms of euphemistic expressions, Secondly, translation of taboos and euphemisms is not really comparable to the translation of idioms. Translators who understand language and behavior in the source and target cultures will often have some
35、fairly precise ideas of how to render a taboo text.In writing the foreword to Construing Cultures, Gentzler (1998) refers to Lefebvres view that translation is a language transfer embedded in yet a larger system that defines and limits the practice of translation. Gentzler interprets the framework f
36、or translation that lies beyond the linguistic level in saying “Only by taking a step back from the immediate language transfer process and by taking the larger institutions involved in cultural construction into consideration can the scholar begin to see the nature of the role translations play in
37、cultural construction.” 3 3. Problems in translating sensitive texts3.1 The data collected from translation training students extended translation project In this paper, I focus on authentic excerpts from a translation training students extended translation project which deals with a sensitive text.
38、 Although limited, the data has a longitudinal aspect, since it examines the first, second and third translation drafts in depth. Furthermore, the point in this paper is to use this case as a stepping stone for a discussion of some problems and principles in the translation of sensitive texts and, p
39、erhaps, to suggest ways of translating sexual texts adequately from Western languages to languages to relatively conservative cultures.In the Translation Training Program at Chongqing Crazy English Center where I was working, students are required to do a translation project from or into Chinese. St
40、udents are free to choose the text for translation themselves, but it must be 2,000 words long in the target language. Throughout the project, students work under supervision and they normally providea) a first draft which is then followed byb) a second one and thenc) the final version.The second an
41、d the third version are done after the student has received feedback from the supervision. The student whose drafts are discussed here was a woman in her early twenties without much working experience. During the face-to-face consultations she was shy about using sexual terms in Chinese, but was, in
42、terestingly, more at ease discussing them in English. It seemed as if the distance provided by English as her second language facilitated references to sex. Besides, her use of sexual terms was obviously limited. She knew the open way of using the terms but was unaware of the potential for subtle li
43、nguistic usage.(1) “Men feel more betrayed by their wives having sex with someone else what really tears men apart is to visualize their partner being sexual with somebody elseWomen certainly dont want their husbands having sex with somebody else” (Grass 1998:38)The students first draft ran:(1a)男性会因
44、妻子与他人有性关系而感到被出卖真正令男人沮丧的是想象到妻子与他人做爱女性当然不想丈夫与其他女人发生关系。The Chinese first-draft translation adopts a literal approach to the three sexual references. However grammatical, it does not sound fluent in Chinese. One problem is probably the overt references to sex, which is mostly presented euphemistically i
45、n Chinese writing.3.2 Problem 1: rigid equivalenceWhen it comes to sensitive texts, Chinese students are in a straightjacket in their English-Chinese translation. They are uneasy about the subject matter and its presentation in Chinese. They therefore tend to stick to the English syntax and word ord
46、er in a highly constrained manner.(2)“Men feel more betrayed by their wives having sex with someone else; women feel more betrayed by their husbands being emotionally involved with someone else. What really tears men apart is to visualize their partner being sexual with somebody else.” (Grass 1998:
47、38) (The complete transcript, although a partial repetition of (1) is presented here to illustrate the syntactic issue. whereas example (1) is about overt sexual reference in the students first draft, (2)focuses on the rigid syntactic equivalence the student tried to achieve.)(2a) 男性会因妻子与他人有性关系而感到被出
48、卖, 女性则会因丈夫与他人有感情上的交流而有同样感觉.真正另男人沮丧的是想象妻子与他人做爱. (First draft)(Men would feel betrayed when their wives have sexual relations with others. Women would feel the same if their husbands have emotional exchanges with others. What drives men crazy is to visualize their wives having sex with others.)Syntact
49、ically, (2a) is strikingly similar in form to the English source text. It is still not a Chinese translation that is easy to read.Before the language transfer, the student translator clearly failed to assess how these ideas are expressed in Chinese, whether people talk that way, and whether domestication or foreignization would be the acceptable norm. If domestication is feasible, what are the language resources and strategies available for effectively expressing the ideas in
