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1、THE GENDER-LINKED LANGUAGE EFFECT Anthony Mulac, University of California, Santa Barbara1. What is the Gender-Linked Language Effect?In a substantial number of empirical investigations outside the context of organizations, the language used by men and women has been shown to differ in meaningful way
2、s. Mulac, Bradac, and Gibbons (in press) summarized more than 30 studies, finding 16 language features that have differentiated gender in a consistent manor. For example, 5 investigations have shown that men tend to use more references to quantity (“an 81% loss in vision”) than women, and 3 studies
3、have revealed that men employ more judgmental adjectives (“Working can be a drag”). On the other hand, 6 studies have demonstrated that women use more intensive adverbs (“This is really hard”) and 5 that women use more references to emotions (“If he loved what he was doing . . .”). Although such lan
4、guage differences are often found, they should not be thought of as “markers” of gender (Giles, Scherer, & Taylor, 1979) whose presence unerringly points to the gender of the speaker. Instead, they function as gender-linked “tendencies” (Smith, 1985) to favor certain linguistic features over others.
5、 Although there is widespread agreement among researchers that gender-linked language differences occur in a wide range of communication contexts (Aries, 1996; Henley & Kramarae, 1991; Pearson, West, & Turner, 1993), a challenge to this view has recently appeared. Canary and Hause (1993) have argued
6、 that meaningful differences in the communication strategies of men and women have not been found with any degree of consistency. They conclude, “We believe there are sex differences in communication, but they are eluding us” (p. 141). Unfortunately, Canary and Hause cite only 3 of the more than 30
7、empirical studies summarized by Mulac et al. (1998) that have found gender differences in language use in a wide variety of contexts. The importance of these gender-linked tendencies can be seen in the effects of such language differences on observers judgments of communicators. In a series of eight
8、 investigations, Mulac and his colleagues have demonstrated that mens and womens language leads them to be judged differently on psychological dimensions that are of consequence (cf. Mulac & Bradac, 1995; Mulac & Lundell, 1980, 1982, 1986, 1994). The almost universal finding is that readers of brief
9、 transcripts of womens language rate them higher on Socio-Intellectual Status (i.e., higher social status and more literate) and higher on Aesthetic Quality (more pleasant and beautiful). Men are rated higher on Dynamism (stronger and more aggressive). This pattern of judgments has been shown, by mu
10、ltiple regression analyses, to be linked to gender-differentiating language and has been titled the Gender-Linked Language Effect (see Mulac, 1998, for a complete summary). In these studies, the researchers have employed transcripts of male and female communication recorded in a variety of contexts:
11、 public speeches, oral descriptions of landscape photographs, written essays on morality, written descriptions of photographs, and problem-solving dyadic interactions between strangers. Although many of the studies have involved university students as speakers, writers, or dyad partners, a substanti
12、al number have used communicators of other ages: fourth- and fifth-grade students, university teaching assistants and lecturers older than 30, and people in their 50s and 60s. The pattern of results has been essentially identical across all communicator age-groups, although one study showed the effe
13、ct to be greater for older speakers (Mulac & Lundell, 1980). () In all of their investigations, Mulac and associates have controlled for the possibility that gender stereotypes might affect ratings by ensuring that observers were unable to identify the sex of the speakers or writers. They reasoned t
14、hat if observers could not identify the sex of the communicators, they could not be influenced by gender stereotypes when they rated those communicators. However, in another investigation, Mulac, Incontro, and James (1985) directly compared the effects of male and female language differences to thos
15、e of gender stereotypes. Results showed that observers made remarkably similar judgments about men and women, based on either the speakers language use or the observers own gender stereotypical notions about men and women (86% judgment overlap). Furthermore, the findings indicated that language and
16、stereotype effects are independent of each other, in that they can be brought about separately, added together to increase male-female differences, or pitted against each other to cancel out such differences. One possible interpretation is that the way in which men and women speak helps perpetuate g
17、ender stereotypes. These findings of evaluative consequences of male/female language differences have been found equally for male and female raters across the eight investigations (Mulac, 1998). In addition, three of these studies found that older individuals (median age of more than 40 years) provi
18、ded speaker ratings that were essentially identical to those of university students (median age = 19). The consistency of these findings serves to substantiate the broad generalizability of the Gender-Linked Language Effect. 2. Descriptions, Examples, and Citations for 18 Language Features Found in
19、Previous Empirical Studies to Predict Communicator Gender1. SENTENCESA. Elliptical sentences (“Gorgeous!” “A beautiful snowy setting.” “Daytime.”):A unit beginning with a capital letter and ending with a period in which either the subject or predicate is understood. Mulac and Lundell (1986),M+b (ora
20、l descriptions of photographs); Mulac and Lundell (1994), M+ (written descriptions of photographs).B. Questions (“What is Communication 12?” “What do you do?”): Directives in question form were not counted. Fishman (1978), F+ (couples conversations); Mulac, Wiemann, Widenmann, and Gibson (1988), F+
21、(dyadic interactions). C. Directives (“Think of another.” “Why dont we put that down?”): Haas (1979), M+ (interviews); Mulac et al. (1988), M+ (dyadic interactions). D. Negations (“You dont feel like looking . . .”): A statement of what something is not. Mulac and Lundell (1986), F+ (oral descriptio
22、ns of photographs); Mulac, Lundell, and Bradac (1986), F+ (public speeches). E. Mean length sentences: The number of words divided by the number of sentences, defined as sequences of words beginning with a capital letter and ending with a period. Hunt (1965), F+ (written essays); Mulac et al. (1986)
23、, F+ (public speaking); Mulac and Lundell (1986), F+ (oral descriptions of photographs); Mulac and Lundell (1994), F+ (written descriptions of photographs); Mulac, Studley, and Blau (1990), M+ (fourth-grade essays); Poole (1979), F+ (interviews). 2. CLAUSES AND PHRASESA. Sentence-initial adverbials
24、(“Instead of being the light blue . . . , it is . . .” “Because the trees still have snow . . . , it looks like . . .”): Answers the questions: how?, when?, or where? regarding the main clause. Mulac et al. (1986),F+ (public speeches); Mulac et al. (1988), F+ (dyadic interactions); Mulac and Lundell
25、 (1994), F+ (written descriptions of photographs); Mulac et al. (1990), F+ (fourth-grade written essays). B. Dependent clauses (“which is mostly covered . . . ”; “where the shadows are”; “in which something . . .”): A clause that serves to specify or qualify the words that convey primary meaning. Be
26、ck (1978), F+ (oral descriptions of Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) cards);Hunt (1965),F+ (written essays); Mulac et al. (1990), F+ (fourth-grade impromptu essays); Mulac and Lundell (1994), F+ (written descriptions of photographs); Poole (1979), F+ (interviews).C. Oppositions (“The snow must have
27、fallen fairly recently, but it has been a while . . .” “very peaceful, yet full of movement . . .”): Retracting a statement and posing one with an opposite meaning. Mulac and Lundell (1986),F+ (oral descriptions of photographs); Mulac et al. (1986), F+ (public speeches).D. Judgmental adjectives (“di
28、stracting,” “bothersome,” “nice . . .”): These indicate personal evaluation rather than merely description. Mulac and Lundell (1994), M+ (written descriptions of photographs); Mulac et al. (1990), M+ (4th-, 8th-, and 12-grade impromptu essays); Sause (1976), M+ (interviews).3. VERB PHRASESA. Uncerta
29、inty verbs (“I wonder if . . . ,” “seems to be . . . ,” “Im not sure . . .”): Verb phrases indicating apparent lack of certainty. Hartman (1976), F+ (interviews); Mulac and Lundell (1994), F+ (written descriptions of photographs); Poole (1979), F+ (interviews).4. MODIFIERSA. Intensive adverbs (“very
30、,” “really,” “quite”):Crosby and Nyquist (1977),F+(dyadic interactions); Lapadat and Seesahai (1978), F+ (group discussions); McMillan, Clifton, McGrath, and Gale (1977), F+ (group discussions); Mulac and Lundell (1986), F+ (oral descriptions of photographs); Mulac et al. (1986), F+ (public speeches
31、); Mulac et al. (1988), F+ (dyadic interactions).B. Hedges (“sort of,” “kind of,” “possibly,” “maybe”): Modifiers that indicate lack of confidence in, or diminished assuredness of, the statement. Crosby and Nyquist (1977), F+ (dyadic interactions); Mulac et al. (1990), F+ (fourth grade impromptu ess
32、ays).5. REFERENCESA. References to emotion (“happy,” “enticing,” “depressing”): Any mention of an emotion or feeling. Balswick and Avertt (1977), F+ (written response to questionnaire); Gleser, Gottschalk, and John (1959), F+ (event descriptions); Mulac and Lundell (1994), F+ (written descriptions o
33、f photographs);Mulac et al. (1986), F + (public speeches); Staley (1982), F+ (oral descriptions of pictures).B. References to quantity (“below 32 F,” “most of the area,” “6-8 thousand feet elevation”): Any mention of an amount. Gleser et al. (1959), M+ (event descriptions); Mulac and Lundell (1986),
34、 M+ (oral descriptions of photographs); Sause (1976),M+ (interviews);Warshay (1972),M+ (event description essays);Wood (1966), M+ (oral descriptions of pictures). C. Locatives (“right next to the . . . ,” “in the background”): Usually indicating the location or position of objects. Gleser et al. (19
35、59), M+ (event descriptions); Mulac and Lundell (1994),M+(written descriptions of photographs). D. “I” references (“I think we should . . .”): First-person singular pronoun in the subjective case. Mulac and Lundell (1994),M+ (written descriptions of photographs); Mulac et al. (1990), M+ (fourth-grad
36、e impromptu essays). 6. MISCELLANEOUSA. Words: Total number of words spoken. Bilous and Krauss (1988), F+ (problem- solving groups); Mulac (1989), M+ (dyadic interactions). B. Vocalized pauses (“uh,” “umh”): Francis (1979), M+ (getting-acquainteddyadic interactions); Mulac et al. (1986), M+ (public
37、speeches).a. Citations indicate empirical studies in which the variable was found to differ for male and female communicators.待添加的隐藏文字内容1b. Gender distinctions, in terms of whether the variable was more indicative of male or female communicators, are as follows: M+= male, F+ = female. (Note, however
38、, that the linguistic categories were not in all cases precisely equivalent across studies.) Communication contexts in which gender differences were found are indicated in parentheses.3. Useful ReferencesMulac, A. (1989). Mens and womens talk in same sex and mixed-sex dyads: Power or polemic? Journa
39、l of Language and Social Psychology, 8, 249-270.Mulac, A. (1998). The gender-linked language effect: Do language differences really make a difference? InD.Canary&K.Dindia (Eds.),Sex differences and similarities incommunication: Critical essays and empirical investigations of sex and gender in intera
40、ction (pp. 127-153). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Mulac, A., & Bradac, J. J. (1995).Womens style in problem solving interactions: Powerless, or simply feminine? In P. J. Kalbfleish & M. J. Cody (Eds.), Gender, power and communication (pp. 83-104). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Mulac, A., Bradac, J
41、. J.,&Gibbons,P. (2001). Empirical support for the “gender as culture” hypothesis: An intercultural analysis of male/female language differences. Human Communication Research, 27, 121 152.Mulac, A., Incontro, C. R., & James,M. R. (1985). Comparison of the gender-linked language effect and sex role s
42、tereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1099-1110.Mulac, A.,& Lundell, T. L. (1982). An empirical test of the gender-linked language effect in a public speaking setting. Language and Speech, 25, 243-256.Mulac, A.,& Lundell, T. L. (1986). Linguistic contributors to the gender-li
43、nked language effect. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 5, 81-101.Mulac, A.,&Lundell,T. L. (1994). Effects of gender-linked language differences in adults written discourse: Multivariate tests of language effects. Language and Communication, 14, 299-309.Mulac, A., Lundell, T. L., & Bradac,
44、J. J. (1986). Male/female language differences and attributional consequences in a public speaking situation: Toward an explanation of the gender-linked language effect. Communication Monographs, 53, 115-129.Mulac, A., Wiemann, J. M., Widenmann, S. J., & Gibson, T. W. (1988). Male/female language differences and effects in same-sex and mixed-sex dyads: The gender-linked language effect. Communication Monographs, 55, 315-335.
