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1、Activities, resources and inter-organizational Marcella Martino* and Alfonso Morvillo, Activities, resources and inter-organizational relationships: key factors in port competitiveness J. Marit. Pol. Mgmt, 2008(6): 571589In the last decade, the port economics literature has given great emphasis to t
2、he Supply Chain Management approach as the new paradigm for the definition of port competitiveness. SCM supports the development of partnerships between the actors of the supply chain and considers the integration of activities and resources along business processes as source of competitive advantag
3、e. Nevertheless, the application of SCM approach to the port is particularly compiex given the traditional hostile relationships between port actors. In the effort to overcome such complexity, some authors have considered ports as Logistics Service Providers and interpreted their role within supply
4、chains through the integrative practices undertaken by Global Players mainly Shipping Companies and Terminal Operators in the supply of integrated logistics services. Even tough these actors are crucial for the port competitiveness, they determine a passive role of port in the new competitive scenar
5、io. The definition of a potential and pro-active role of port in the supply chains is the objective of this paper that presents, through a literature review on SCM and port competitiveness, a new framework for port competitiveness. According to this framework, that is based on the value constellatio
6、n concept value is generated by joint effort of port actors in the satisfaction of clients needs, through the exploitation of different I mterdependencies (serial, pooled and reciprocal) between supply chains. In this context, Port Authority has a I fundamental role in identifying those resources th
7、e so called critical assets that encourage the development of interorganisational relationships between port actors in the value generation process.1. IntroductionStudies on port competitiveness have traditionally focused on the analysis of specific services or port activities, within a context char
8、acterized by an increasing complexity, in which the actors involved are very often motivated by opposing interests and nonconvergent objectives.One of the most interesting attempt to describe and strategically drive the port development in Italy, uses the theoretical model created by Abell in order
9、to delimit the sphere of competitiveness and define the strategic business areas (SBA) of a port. The final aim is to design a model for the definition of strategic positioning and the ports development options, within each strategic area (SBA) of which it is composed. Various applications of this c
10、onceptual framework have brought to the formulation of strategic positioning hypothesis and development options for the Port of Genoa, Gioia Tauro, Savona Vado and Naples.With reference to the debate on who the true actors within the competitive arena are, Heaver believes that terminals are more cle
11、arly the focus of the competitive strategy and not ports, because of the different types of freight flows they deal with. Other authors have used a variant on the Porter diamond model to identify the main strengths and weaknesses of a port compared with other competitors. For a proper analysis of th
12、e competitive relationship between ports, they refer to the termrange, i.e. an area that includes a series of ports, with a wide overlapping of hinterlands to serve the same clients. The proposed framework, applied to the Port of Antwerp in the HamburgLe Havre range, identifies a series of specific
13、factors (demand conditions, factor conditions, supporting industries, etc.) that influence the provision of logistics services in the port and thus determine a competitive advantage respect to the ports in the same range.Other studies should also be mentioned, that are mainly based on an elaboration
14、 of different indicators of technical-dimensional features and performances of the infrastructures and the terminals equipment, so as to evaluate the competitive advantage of a port against its competitors.In summary, the above-mentioned literature proves rigorous and coherent respect to the theoret
15、ical models of reference, generally applied for the analysis of manufacturing industry. Furthermore, it has the merit for triggering the debate on port competitiveness that had long been completely neglected. However, these studies, although having brought to light the traditional conflict of the po
16、rt community and the need to integrate a port and its hinterland, they have not dealt with the integration among actors as a source of competitive advantage in a systematic way.Consistent with the spread of the new paradigm by which real competition is not company against company but rather supply c
17、hain against supply chain it has been stated that competition is not unfolding between individual ports but between logistic chains. Under this perspective, the supply of value-added services has gained a major role in the port competitiveness, within which terminals have become simple elements.The
18、strategic importance of added-value logistics services as a source of competitive advantage of ports has been strongly supported by the two main agencies for international development: the World Bank and UNCTAD. In different statements, they refer to the opportunity of developing, alongside traditio
19、nal logistics servicesrelated to the movement of cargoa whole set of added value activities that allow to optimize the flow of goods and increase the value of the product. They indeed highlight the necessity of a port to promote the development of its own productive hinterland, in order to guarantee
20、 a lasting economic development.The recognition of the supply chain management (SCM) as a lever for competitiveness, thus brings us to believe that the traditional approaches of analysis, briefly mentioned, are not enough to describe and interpret the current evolving market dynamics. As a result, a
21、 new systematic view is being affirmed, by which the competitiveness of a port, although still strongly related to structure-type variables (geo-economic context, institutional model and the infrastructures of connection), is increasingly dependent on software components of the port business, that i
22、nclude the range of services offered, the presence of ICT systems for the exchange of information between actors in the same and in other port communities, the know-how of the maritime industry, the level and intensity of relationships between actors: all elements that define the quality of a port.A
23、ccepting this view, some authors have reconsidered recent contributions and conceptual categories within supply chain management (SCM) literature to re-define strategic positioning and port strategies. In particular, the supply chain concept primarily focused on the logistics lincages between focal
24、firm, supplier and customer, subsequently its contents expanded to include the network of organizations involved, through upstream and downstream linkages, in various processes and activities that create value in terms of products and services to the final client. SCM, as a managerial philosophy, su
25、pports the development of partnerships between actors of the supply chain and considers the integration of activities and resources of these actors along business processes as sources of competitive advantage.Although the strategic importance of the SCM and logistics integration is widely recognized
26、 in the academic world and in current business practice, only few contributions have, until now, dealt with logistics integration and SCM issues in the port environment, while most of the available literature adopts a fragmented approach in the analysis of port activities.Taking into consideration t
27、hat the SCM is the new paradigm, by which ports can develop different competencies and offer a high quality service, this paper proposes a new theoretical framework for port strategy and development. To this aim, the paper is structured in three main parts. In the first part, of theoretical nature,
28、there is an introduction of the SCM paradigm and its extension to networks. Networks are increasingly being looked at as an object of study within the SCM literature, as they more accurately describe the complex reality in which businesses operate. The process in which raw materials are turned into
29、end-products and services is rarely simple linear process chain, and much more like a spaghetti web of complex interconnected relationships. In this context, the crucial factor for strategic positioning is the capability of a firm to create inter-organizational relationships, as they represent the m
30、eans by which the company gains access to, mobilizes and combines different activities and resources, promoting and creating productivity and innovation, both within the business and in the network. The second part focuses on logistics integration and SCM issues in the port environment. This section
31、 of the paper is particularly outstanding as each concept has not been dealt with univocally in literature; from a review of these studies, it becomes evident that there is a lack of frameworks to represent the entire port community in the process of creating value.As the port is a complex reality i
32、nvolved in a series of supply chains, each of which is a specific entity with particular needs, networks make it possible to describe the relationships between port actors involved in the process of customer satisfaction; moreover, the inter-organizational relationships between the different network
33、 actors created, both to manage various business activities and to oversee critical resources in order to satisfy the clients, are decisive for port competitiveness. On the basis of this hypothesis, in the third part of the paper a new model is proposed According to this model, value is created by a
34、 joint effort of all port actors to satisfy the needs of target customers, through exploiting different interdependencies (sequential, pooled and reciprocal) between supply chains.经济活动、资源和组织关系：港口竞争力的关键因素在过去的10年里，港口经济学文献极大地强调了把供应链管理方式作为港口竞争力的新范式。供应链管理支持供应链的角色并且考虑在业务流程上整合作为竞争力优势来源的经济活动和资源之间关系的发展。然而，对港
35、口供应链管理方式的应用在有传统的敌对关系的两个港口之间尤其复杂。为了努力克服这种复杂性，有些作者已经考虑到港口是物流服务的提供商，并且理解它们在全球玩家掌控下的通过综合实践的供应链角色主要是船公司和终端经营者提供综合的物流服务。即使这些因素对港口竞争力而言是至关重要的，它们决定了在新的竞争情景下港口的被动角色。对港口在供应链中潜在的积极角色的定义是这篇文章所要呈现的目的，通过对供应链管理和港口竞争力的一系列文献回顾，构建出一个关于港口竞争力的新框架。根据这个框架，也就是基于价值概念的价值是由共同努力来满足客户需求所产生的，通过开发供应链之间的不同的（系列的混合的互惠的）的依赖性。在这种情形下，
36、港口当局在鉴别那些资源的时扮演了基础性的角色这就是所谓的关键资产在价值形成过程中，鼓励港口各因素组织关系的发展。1、 介绍关于港口竞争力的研究传统上聚焦于分析具体的服务或者港口活动，在环境特征日益复杂的情形下，这些涉及到的因素经常会被对方利益和无收敛的目标所驱动。其中最有趣的是试图去描述策略性地驱使意大利港口的发展，采用ABELL的理论模型，为了去划定竞争力的范围并且定义港口的战略业务领域。最终目标是为了战略定位的定义和港口的发展选择设计一个模型，这是由每一个战略区（SBA）所组成的。这个概念框架的各种应用带来了指定战略定位的假设和港口发展的选择，如热那亚，Tauro Gioia，Savona
37、 Vado和那不勒斯。关于争论谁是这个竞争区域的真正主导者，Heaver相信，终端更明显地是竞争战略的焦点而不是港口的，因为他们所处理的不同类型的货物流。其他作者应用波特的钻石模型来说明港口相对于其他竞争者而言所具有的优势和劣势。为了正确地分析港口之间的竞争关系，他们参考“range（范围）”这个术语，也就是说，一个包含了一系列港口的区域，拥有广泛的叠加的相同的内地客户。这个被提出来的框架，应用到汉堡和勒阿弗尔地区之间的安特卫普港，表明了一系列的特定因素（需求条件，因素条件，支持产业等）会影响港口物流服务的提供，从而能确定在这个相同的区域范围内的港口所具有的竞争优势。其他的研究也应该提到，即主
38、要是基于不同指标的阐述，技术空间特点以及基础设施和终端设备的性能，从而来评价一个港口相对于它的竞争对手而言所具有的竞争优势。总之，上述提及到的文献证明了对参考理论模型严谨而又连贯的尊重，一般是应用到制造业的分析。而且，它在引发关于港口竞争力讨论的时候具有很多优点，这在之前早就被全盘忽略了。然而，这些研究尽管已经揭示了港口社区的传统冲突，需要去整合港口和它的腹地，他们没有用一种系统的方式来处理好各种要素的一体化，并把它作为竞争优势的一个来源。符合新范式传播是这样子的“真正的竞争不是公司与公司之间的，而是供应链与供应链之间的”，它已经声明，“竞争不是在个体港口之间展开的，而是在物流链之间展开。从这
39、个角度看来，在港口竞争下提供增值服务已经成为了重要的角色，终端已经成为了“简单元素”。具有战略重要性的增值物流服务作为港口竞争优势的一个来源，处于国际发展的需要已经被两家主要的机构强力支持着：世界银行和联合国贸易和发展会议。在不同的声明中，他们指的是发展的机会，与传统的物流服务相关的货物运动一整套允许优化商品流通和提升产品价值的增值活动。他们事实上突出了港口促进其生产腹地发展的必要性，为了确保一种持久的经济发展。识别供应链管理作为竞争力的一根杠杆，从而使我们相信传统的分析方法只是简单地提到，不足以描述和解释当前发展的市场动态。结果，一个新的系统观正在逐步被肯定，根据港口的竞争力，尽管仍旧跟结构
40、型变量非常相关（地理经济背景，制度模型和基础设施连接），正变得越来越依赖于港口业务的软件组成，包括提供服务的范围，用于相同或者其他港口社区之间交换因素信息的现有信息与通信技术系统，海上行业的专业知识，因素之间水平和强度的关系：所有的元素定义了一个港口的质量。接受了这一观点，一些学者已经重新思考了在供应链管理文献下最近的贡献和概念范畴，来重新定义战略定位和港口战略。值得一提的是，该供应链的概念主要聚焦于公司、供应商以及顾客之间的物流体系，随着它的内容扩大到包括网络的组织参与，通过上游与下游之间的联系，以各种工序和活动来创造面向最终客户的关于产品和服务的价值。供应链管理，作为一个管理理念，支持发展
41、使用者和供应链之间合作伙伴关系，考虑活动和资源的整合，作为业务流程中的具有相对竞争优势的一个来源。尽管供应链管理的重要战略和物流一体化是学术界和当前贸易实务所广泛认同的，直到现在都只有一部分的贡献，在港口环境中处理了物流一体化和供应链管理的问题，然而大多数现有文献的采用一个支离破碎的方式在分析港口的活动。考虑到供应链管理是新范式，港口可以发展不同的能力并且提供高质量的服务，本文在关于港口战略和发展上提出了一个新的理论框架。针对这一目标，本文结构可以分为三个主要的部分。第一部分，理论属性，介绍供应链管理的新范式及其延伸网络。网络正逐步被视作供应链管理文献的一个研究对象，因为他们能够更加准确地描述
42、出商业活动中的复杂实相。“原材料转化成最终产品和服务的过程是一个相对简单的线性过程链，与其说像复杂的互联网络关系，更不如说是像意大利面条”。在此背景下，战略定位的关键因素是公司创造组织关系的能力，因为他们象征公司进入的方式，动员和结合不同的经济活动与资源，促进产品创造和创新，无论是在商业上还是在网络上。第二部分主要聚焦在港口环境下的物流一体化和供应链管理问题。文章的这一部分尤为突出，因为每一个概念都没有处理好文献中未提及的问题：从对这些文献的回顾，可以明显地看出，缺乏一个框架来呈现整个港口群体在过程中创造价值。鉴于港口是涉及一系列供应链关系的复杂现状，其中的每一个部分都是具有不同需求的特殊实体，网络使描述港口之间的关系，在过程中令顾客满意变得更加可行；而且，组织间的关系在不同的网络中被创造，既能管理各种经营活动又能为了使客户满意而监督关键资源，这些都决定了港口的竞争力。根据这个假设，在本文的第三部分提出了一个新的模型。根据这个模型，价值是通过共同努力而被创造的，各种港口因素都是为了满足目标客户的需求，通过开发供应链之间不同的顺序（顺序，混合，互惠）。
