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1、 World Trade and International Trade In todays complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this tra
2、de and activity, international finance and banking have evolved.For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow
3、coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade
4、 would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can
5、 buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State.Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. La
6、rge deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them.Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does
7、 not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.Third, one nation can sell some items at a lower cost than other countries. Japan has been able to export large
8、 quantities of radios and television sets because it can produce them more efficiently than other countries. It is cheaper for the United States to buy these from Japan than to produce them domestically. According to economic theory, Japan should produce and export those items from which it derives
9、a comparative advantage. It should also buy and import what it needs from those countries that have a comparative advantage in the desired items.Finally, foreign trade takes place because of innovation or style. Even though the United States produces more automobiles than any other country, it still
10、 imports large numbers of autos from Germany, Japan and Sweden, primarily because there is a market for them in the United States.For most nations, exports and imports are the most important international activity. When nations export more than they import, they are said to have a favorable balance
11、of trade. When they import more than they export, an unfavorable balance of trade exists. Nations try to maintain a favorable balance of trade, which assures them of the means to buy necessary imports.International trade is the exchange of goods and services produced in one country for goods and ser
12、vices produced in another country. There are several reasons for it.The distribution lf natural resources around the world is somewhat haphazard: some nations possess natural deposits in excess of their own requirements while other nations have none. For example, Britain has large reserves of coal b
13、ut lacks many minerals such as nickel, copper, aluminum etc, whereas the Arab states have vast oil deposits but little else. In the cultivation of natural products climates whereas others, such as citrus fruits, require a Mediterranean climate. Moreover, some nations are unable to produce sufficient
14、 of a particular product to satisfy a large home demand, for example, Britain and wheat. These are the reasons why international trade first began.With the development of manufacturing and technology, there arose another incentive for nations to exchange their products. It was found that it made eco
15、nomic sense for a nation to specialize in certain activities and produce those goods for which it had the most advantages, and to exchange those goods for the products of other nations which and advantages in different fields. This trade is based on the principle of comparative advantage.The theory
16、of comparative advantage, also called the comparative cost theory, was developed by David Ricardo, and other economists in the nineteenth century. It points out that trade between countries can be profitable for all, even if one of the countries can produce every commodity more cheaply. As long as t
17、here are minor, relative differences in the efficiency of producing a commodity even the poof country can have a comparative advantage in producing it. The paradox is best illustrated by this traditional example: the best lawyer in town is also the best typist in town. Since this lawyer cannot affor
18、d to give up precious time from legal and typing matters. But the typists comparative disadvantage is least in typing. Therefore, the typist has a relative comparative advantage in typing.This principle is the basis of specialization into trades and occupations. At the same time, complete specializa
19、tion may never occur even when it is economically advantageous. For strategic or domestic reasons, a country may continue to produce goods for which it does not have an advantage. The benefits lf specialization may also be affecting by transport costs: goods and raw materials have to be transported
20、around the world and the cost of the transport narrows the limits between which it will prove profitable to trade. Another impediment to the free flow of goods between nations is the possible introduction of artificial barriers to trade, such as tariffs or quotas.In addition to visible trade, which
21、involves the import and export lf goods and merchandise, there is also invisible trade, which involves the exchange of services between nations.Nations such as Greece and Norway have large marine fleets and provide transportation service. This is a kind of invisible trade. When an exporter arranges
22、shipment, he rents space in the cargo compartment or a ship.The prudent exporter purchases insurance for his cargos voyage. While at sea, a cargo is vulnerable to many dangers. Thus, insurance is another service in which some nations specialize. Great Britain, because of the development of Lloyds of
23、 London, is a leading exporter of this service, earning fees for insuring other nations foreign trade.Some nations possess little in the way of exporter commodities or manufactured goods, but they have a mild and sunny climate. During the winter, the Bahamas attract large numbers of countries, who s
24、pend money for hotel accommodations, meals, taxis, and so on. Tourism, therefore, is another form of invisible trade.Invisible trade can be as important to some nations as the export of raw materials or commodities is to other. In both cases, the nations as the export of raw materials or commodities
25、 is to other. In both cases, the nations earn money to buy necessities.International trade today little resembles European commerce as it existed between the 16th century and the 19th century. Trade in earlier times was conducted largely between a mother country and its colonies. It was conducted ac
26、cording to strict mercantilist principles. The colonies were supposed to supply the mother country with raw materials, and they were expected to buy all finished goods from the mother country. Other forms of trade were forbidden to the colonies, but many of them evaded these restrictions.A result of
27、 the Industrial Revolution, which began in England in the 18th century, was the transformation of trade from a colonial exchange into a many sided international institution. Cottage industries gave way to mass production in factories. Railroads and steamships lowered the cost of transportation at th
28、e same time that new markets were being sought for the expanding output of goods.The Industrial Revolution also brought an end to mercantilist policies. The laissez-faire attitudes that emerged in their stead permitted businessmen to manufacture what they pleased and to trade freely with other natio
29、ns. Trade was also stimulated by the growth of banking facilities, insurance companies, and improved commercial shipping and communications.The repeal of the Corn Laws by Great Britain in 1846 ended Britains longstanding policy of protectionism. During the 19th century, many European nations made co
30、mmercial agreements with each other easing their tariff rates. Lower tariffs and the growth of population and industry caused trade to soar in the 19th century.In the 20th century two world wars and a major depression caused severe disturbances in international trade. Nations, sensing a threat to th
31、eir domestic economies, sought to protect themselves from further disturbances by erecting various barriers to trade.The situation became even worse after Great Britain abandoned the gold standard. The nations that were closely related to Britain, including most of the members of the Commonwealth of
32、 gold standard. As the means of making international payments broke down and trade restrictions increased, some countries had to resort to barter to obtain foreign goods.International trade was in such severe straits during the depression that a World Economic Conference was held in 1933. This confe
33、rence, however, was unable to halt a rash of currency devaluations, tariff increases, and quota arrangements.In 1934, U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull persuaded Congress to pass the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act. This law authorized the President to negotiate tariff cuts with other nations. Th
34、e Reciprocal Trade Act provided for protection of U.S. industries in the event foreign imports increased to such a degree that U.S. businesses were injured. This protection included peril point and escape clauses under which tariff cuts could by refused of rescinded if a U.S. industry suffered econo
35、mic hardship. Despite the protectionist clauses in the act, U.S. tariffs were substantially reduced.Shortly before the end of World War , members of the United Nations met at Bratton Woods, N.H. to discuss ways of reducing the financial barriers to international trade. The International Monetary Fun
36、d was established as a result of the conference. The fund was designed to encourage the growth of international trade by stabilizing currencies and their rate of foreign exchange.In the early postwar period, more than 20 nations met in Geneva, Switzerland, to negotiate tariff reductions. When any tw
37、o nations reached an agreement to reduce tariffs on a product, the benefits were extended to all participating nations. This was an application of the so-called most favored nation clause.The Geneva tariff agreements were written into the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). GATT also esta
38、blished standards for the conduct of international trade. Fox example, the agreement prohibits nations from placing quotas of limits on imports, except under very special circumstances.After World War a number of free trade areas were formed to solve trade problems on a regional basis. Tariffs on go
39、ods moving within these areas were to be abolished. Some of the groups also erected a single tariff on the goods of outsiders coming into their common area. Such groups are called customs unions. The goal of all trade blocs was to merge small political units into large geographic entities in which g
40、oods could be freely manufactured and sold. A large market area greatly stimulates economic growth and prosperity. These trade blocs are: Benelux, The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC or Common Market), the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), the Cou
41、ncil for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECOM), the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA), the Central American Common Market (CACM), the Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM).世界贸易和国际贸易在当今复杂的经济世界个人和国家都不是自给自足。 国家有利用不同的经济资源，人们开发了不同的技能。 这是世界贸易和经
42、济活动的基础。 此贸易和活动中，导致的国际金融和银行已经演化。例如，美国是主要使用者的咖啡，但它并没有增加任何气候或自己。 因此，美国必须引进高效种植咖啡的国家 (如巴西、 哥伦比亚、 危地马拉) 咖啡。 在另一方面，美国有大型工厂能生产多种化工和，可以出售给需要它们的国家的飞机等的货物。 如果国家交易如为 10000 袋咖啡，一个汽车的项的项外贸会非常麻烦和制约。 如此的即无钱交换的商品贸易的口味而不是美国用于它的销售支付收到钱。 它为巴西咖啡，巴西可以随后使用。反过来可以买纺织品，然后可以买到从美国来的烟草，买澳大利亚的羊毛用美元支付。外贸，各国之间的商品交换，原因是很多地方都需要很多不同
43、的商品。首先，没有一个国家的商品能满足国家本身的所有需要，各种原料分散在世界各地，大型铜矿分布在秘鲁和扎伊尔，南非生产钻石，中东石油资源丰富，自己国界内部不能生产的资源，必须向生产这些资源的国家购买。对外贸易的发生是因为每个国家没有足够的能力生产所有满足本国需要的产品，虽然美国是主要的糖生产国，但是其国内消耗远远超过其生产能力，因此其必须进口。第三，一个国家可以卖一个比其他国家较低的成本的一些项目。日本已经能够出口收音和电视机，因为它可以比其他国家更有效的大量生产它们。美国从日本购买比在国内生产这些便宜。根据经济理论，日本应该生产和出口的是从它派生的一个比较优势的项目，还应该购买那些在本国生产
44、成本比其他国家高的产品。最后，对外贸易需要那些创新的产品，尽管美国是世界上最大的汽车生产国，但是仍需要从德国、日本、瑞典进口大量汽车，主要是为了满足本国的市场需要。对于大多数国家，出口和进口是最重要的国际活动。当国家的出口多于进口，这是一种贸易顺差，当进口多于出口，是贸易逆差。联合国试图保持良好的贸易平衡，保证用必要的手段来购买他们需要进口的货物，在一个国家生产的商品和服务在与另一个国家生产服务的交流。它有几个原因。分布在世界各地的天然资源，很不平衡，在一些国家有些资源拥有过多，而其他矿藏相对较少，甚至没有。例如，英国煤炭储量很大，但是缺乏如镍，铜，铝等多种矿物质，而阿拉伯国家有丰富的石油储量
45、，但其他资源几乎没有。在自然生物方面，如柑橘类水果，适合在地中海气候地区种植，此外，一些国家生产的某种产品不能满足本国的需要，例如，英国的小麦。这是贸易发生的原因之一。随着制造技术的发展，因而产生了另一个国家鼓励，交流他们的产品。结果发现，它使一个国家的经济在一定意义上，专门生产这些商品的活动，并为其中最有优势，以换取其他国家的产品和优势的货物，在不同的领域。这种贸易是基于比较优势的原则。 对比较优势理论，也被称为比较成本理论是由大卫李嘉图发展，在19世纪的其他经济学家。它指出，国家之间的贸易可以为所有有利可图，即使其中一个国家能生产各种商品更便宜。在生产一种商品，甚至国家的效率，只要有轻微的
46、，相对的差异可以在生产它的比较优势。矛盾的是最好的说明了这个传统的例子：在城市最好的律师亦是城里最好的打字员。由于该律师不能放弃从法律和打字事项宝贵的时间。但相比打字员的劣势是至少在打字。因此，打字员在打字上有相对比较优势。 这个原则是行业专业化和职业化的基础，即使它在经济上是有利的，完成专业化可能永远不可能发生，出于战略的原因，一个国家可以继续生产它并不具有优势的商品。专业化的好处也可能会影响了运输成本：商品和原材料都必须在世界各地运送，运输成本的降低将证明它是有利可图的贸易。造成另一个国家的货物自由流动的障碍可能是人为的障碍，如推行贸易关税或配额。 除了有形贸易，其中涉及货物进口和出口的商
47、品；也有无形贸易，其中涉及国家之间的服务交换。 如希腊和挪威等国家运用大型海洋运输船队并提供服务。这就是一种无形贸易。当一个出口商安排装运，他租了一条船货舱，并为出口货物购买了稳健的保险。而在海上，货物很容易受到许多危险。因此，保险是一项服务。这成为一些国家的专业。比如英国由于劳合社伦敦的发展，额成为这项服务的主要出口国，以赚取投保其他国家的外贸费。在一些国家内，他们拥有的商品或制成品出口的方式很少，但他们有一个温和晴朗的气候。在冬季，用旅游来吸引游客的国家，由于酒店住宿，餐费，出租车大量资金等，是旅游形成另一种无形的贸易形式。因此，这是在无形贸易方面可以作为重要的原材料或商品出口的一些国家。
48、在这种情况下，作为原料或商品出口的国家，又必须挣钱买生活必需品。 这有点类似于在16世纪和19世纪就存在国际贸易欧洲之间的贸易，在较早时候进行的大部分贸易是与一国的殖民地。这是严格按照重商主义的原则的调查。殖民地应该提供母国需要的原材料，然后他们购买全部的从母国生产出的货物。工业革命，是18世纪从英国开始的，是从贸易到多方面的国际交流机构的殖民地转变。平房工业让位给群众生产工厂。在铁路和轮船运输费用降低的同时，新的市场正在为要扩大输出的货物寻找更低的运输成本。 工业革命也结束了重商主义政策和自由放任的态度，在出现的代之而起的准制造商让他们高兴，并与其他国家进行自由贸易。贸易也刺激了银行信贷的增
49、长，保险公司，商业和改善航运和通信等行业也得到发展。 该谷物法废除了英国的保护主义的长期政策。在19世纪，许多欧洲国家做出的每一个宽松的关税税率其他商业协议。降低关税和人口增长及工业的发展造成贸易在19世纪迅速腾飞。 在20世纪发生的两次世界大战和大萧条使国际贸易受到严重干扰。联合国，预感到其国内经济受到威胁，于是通过建立自己的各种贸易壁垒以寻求进一步的保护。情况变得更糟后英国放弃了金本位制。与这密切相关的英国国家，包括黄金的标准联合体成员，以此作为国际支付手段的他们因为破裂和贸易限制的增加，一些国家不得不求助于物物交换，以获取外国商品。 国际贸易是在这种严峻的困境，于1933年在一个世界经济会议上举行的会议中形成的，但并未能阻止货币贬值和配额安排。 1934年，美国国务卿科德尔赫尔说服国会通过了互惠贸易协定法案。该法授权总统与其他国家谈判关税削减。互惠贸易法案的规定，美国产业的保护使国外进口增加，这加剧美国的企业受伤程度。这种保护包括危险点和例外条款下可以通过削减关税的取消，如果拒绝美国行业遭受的经济困
