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1、Cohesion in EnglishThe various kinds of cohesion had been out lined by MAK Halliday in his writings on stylistics and the concept was developed by Ruqayia Hasan in her University of Edinburgh doctoral thesis. Cohesive relations are relations between two or more elements in a text that are independen
2、t of the structure: for example between a personal pronoun and an antecedent proper name, such as John .he. A semantic relation of this kind may be set up either within a sentence with the consequence that when it crosses a sentence boundary it has the effect of making the two sentences cohere with
3、one another. The major function of cohesion is text formation. As defined: text is a unified whole of linguistic items, this unity of text as a semantic whole is source for the concept of cohesion. So first we will explore the concept of text.TextText in linguistics refers to any passage spoken writ
4、ten of whatever length that forms a unified whole. A reader can easily identify whether the passage he is reading is a text or otherwise a collection of unrelated sentences. A text may be: spoken, written, prose, verse, dialogue, monologue, single proverb, a single cry for help or all day discussion
5、 on a committee. A text is a unit of language in use. A grammatical unit that is larger than a sentence. A text is not something that is like a sentence only bigger or larger. It is misleading. Rather text can be best defined as a semantic unit; a unit not of form but of meaning. If it is semantic u
6、nit, we will not expect to find it in structure of a sentence as a grammatical unit as phrase, clause etc.So text is not consist of sentence but it is realized by sentence or encoded in sentences.There are certain objective factors involved that constitute a text.Constituents of Text1. Texture:2. Ti
7、es:3. Cohesion1. Texture: Texture is that feature of text which made it a unified whole. According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics by P.H. Mathews cohesion and coherence are sources which create texture. Crystal adds informativeness to cohesion and coherence. Example:Wash and core si
8、x cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish.Here them reference back to six cooking apples to create cohesion between the two sentences. Here we make a presupposition about the relationship between them and six cooking apples but it is not enough only to make a presupposition rather that presup
9、position must be satisfied to create texture as shown in the example . These two items are co referential and this coreferentiality creates texture.Here are five cohesive devices to create texture:(i) Reference (ii) Substitution(iii) Ellipses(iv) Conjunction (v) Lexical Cohesion2. Ties The term refe
10、rs to a single instance of cohesion.Example: Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish.Them and six cooking apples show reference as tie.If we take the Example: Wash and core six cooking apples. Put the apples into a fireproof dish.Here are two ties (i) Reference(ii) Repetitio
11、nCohesive analysis of text is made in terms of tie for a systematic account of its patterns which are a source for texture. Onward we will use the term cohesive tie in place of tie.Here are five different kinds of cohesive ties that are also called cohesive devices: (i) Reference(ii) Substitution(ii
12、i) Ellipses(iv) Conjunction(v) Lexical cohesionMAKH and RH have based their model of cohesion on these cohesive ties. A detailed review is given here in the proceeding discussion. 3. CohesionThe Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics by P.H. Mathews (1997) defines cohesion in term of syntactic uni
13、t (sentence). A Dictionary Of Linguistics And Phonetics by David Crystal (1997) defines cohesion in terms of a grammatical unit (words) MAKH and RH (1976) argued that the concept of cohesion is semantic one. For them it refers to relation of meaning that: exists with in text gives the text texture d
14、efines the text as textThis relation of meaning between the elements gives the reader presupposition. This is another way of approaching the notion of cohesion that presupposing and the presupposed give us a presupposition at semantic level as a relation of meaning: The one element presupposes the o
15、ther i.e. the one element cannot be decoded without the presupposed.Example:Time fliesYou cant; they fly too quickly. You cant (Ellipses)They (Reference) Fly (Lexical Cohesion) Types OF Cohesion Language is multiple coding system comprising three levels of coding: MeaningThe semantic system WordingT
16、he lexicogrammatical system (grammar an vocabulary) Sounding/writingThe phonological and orthographical system Cohesive relation fit into the overall pattern of language. Cohesion is expressed partly through vocabulary and partly through grammar. :1. Grammatical Cohesion(i) Reference(ii) Substitutio
17、n(iii) Ellipses2. Lexical CohesionThe distinction between grammatical cohesion and Lexical cohesion is a matter of degree and MAHK RH suggested not to go in the depth of these overlapping areas and that conjunction is on the border line of the two types mainly it is grammatical but with the lexical
18、component so we cannot clearly distinguish between the two types. Cohesion and the Linguistics Structure Texture and Structure Structure is one mean of expressing texture. Text consists of one sentence are fairly rare but they can be single sentences as well for ExampleNo smokingWonder never ceaseBu
19、t most of the text extends beyond the confines of single sentences so structure is important in a text as structural units such as phrase, clause and sentence which express the unity of text. But our use of term Cohesion refers especially to the non structural text forming relation. They are semanti
20、c relations and the text is a semantic unit. Cohesion With in the TextSince cohesive relation is not concerned with structure, they may be found just as well with in the sentence as between sentences cohesive relation are beyond the sentences boundaries. Cohesion is semantic relation between one ele
21、ment in the text and some other element that is crucial for its interpretation. This other element must also be found with in the text. Cohesion refers to the range of possibilities that exist for linking something with what has gone before.The Place of Cohesion in the Linguistics SystemHalliday (19
22、85) has described three major functional semantic components:(i) The Ideational(ii) The Interpersonal (iii) The Textual Table: the place of cohesion in the description of English functional components of semantic systemIdeationalInterpersonalTextualExperiential Logical StructuralNon-structural By Ra
23、nk:Clause:TransitivityVerbal Group:TenseNominal Group:EpithesisAdverbial Group:circmstanceAll Ranks:Practice and hypotacticrelations(condition, addition, report)By RanksClause:Mood, modality Verbal Group:personNominal Group:attitudeAdverbial Group:commentBy RankClause:themeVerbal Group:voiceNominal
24、Group:deixisAdverbial Group:conjunctionCross-RankInformationUnit:Informationdistribution,Information focusCohesionReferenceSubstitutionEllipsesConjunctionLexical cohesionConclusionCohesion is a part of text forming component in the linguistics system. It links together the elements that are structur
25、ally unrelated through the dependence of one on the other for its interpretation. Without cohesion the semantic system cannot be effectively activated at all. Cohesive Devices(i) Reference(ii) Substitution(iii) Ellipses(iv) Conjunction(v) Lexical cohesion1. ReferenceThere are certain items in any la
26、nguage which cannot be interpreted semantically in their own right rather they make reference to something else within the text for their interpretation.Here is an example of referenceDoctor Foster went to Gloucester in a shower of rain He stepped in puddle right up to his middle And never went ther
27、e againHere in the above exampleHe refers back to Doctor Foster There refers back to Gloucester He and there show that information about them is retrieved elsewhere within the text. It characterizes a particular type of cohesion which is called reference. The relationship of reference is on semantic
28、 level. The reference items must not match the grammatical item it refers to. What must match or the semantic properties of reference item in relation to the items it refers to. Reference can be sub-categorize as follow ReferenceExophora Endophora Anaphora CataphoraExophoraIt indicates situational r
29、eferences. Anaphora signals that reference must be made to the context of situation. It is outside the text so it is called anaphoric reference.Example; For hes a jolly good fellow and so say all of us.Here text is not indicating who he is?He can be recognized by the situation in which expression is
30、 used. They are not source of cohesion because there presupposition cannot be resolved within the text rather the presupposition is found outside the text. EndophoraIt is a general name for reference within the text. This reference can be of two types.(i) Anaphora: Reference back (ii) Cataphora:Refe
31、rence forwardExample:Child: Why does that one come out?Parent: That what Child: That one.Parent: That one what?Child: That lever there that you push to let the water out.That onethat lever (cataphoric reference)That lever that one (anaphoric reference)Types of referenceThere are three types of refer
32、ence (i) Personal Reference (ii) Demonstrative Reference (iii) Comparative ReferenceIt is better first explain the structure of nominal group then proceed towards three types of Reference. It is because we will analyze nominal group for cohesive analysis of these cohesive devices.Nominal GroupThe lo
33、gical structure of the nominal group (noun phrase) is that it consists of head with optional modifier the modifying elements include some which precede the head and some which follow it. They can be referred as Pre modifier and Post modifier respectively. Example The two high stone wall along the ro
34、adside. Wall -HeadThe two high stone-Pre modifier Along the roadside -Post modifierThe modifier can be further subcategorized as:(i) Deictic (ii) Numerative (iii) Epithet (iv) Classifier (v) Qualifier (vi) ThingExample Their famousold red wine. DeicticDeicticepithet classifierthingDeterminer adjecti
35、ve adjectiveadjectivenounI. Personal ReferenceIt is a reference by means of function into a speech situation through the category of the person in the form of personal pronouns. The category of persons includes the three classes of personal pronouns. The category of person includes the three classes
36、 of personal pronouns. During the communication process the speech roles are assigned to the participants through the person system as:SpeakerAddressee It/one are used as a generalized form for other itemsExampleIf the buyer wants to look the condition of the property, he has to have another survey.
37、 One carried out on his own behalf. Here in the above example the use of personal pronouns is a source of personal referenceBuyerhehisSurveyoneIf possessive pronouns are used, they give two more notions other than Speaker and Addressee. They are that of Possessor and Possessed as I the following exa
38、mpleThat new house is Johns. I didnt know it was hisPossessor JohnPossessedhouse shown by the use of his and s The following table shows the system of person for personal reference.Table: Personal Reference ExistentialPossessiveHeadModifierNoun (pronoun) DeterminerI meyouwe us he him she her they th
39、em it one mine yoursours his hers theirs its my yours ourhis her their its ones Semantic category Grammatical function Class Person:speaker (only)addressee (s), with/withoutother person(s)speaker and other personother person, maleother person, female other persons, objects object; passage of textgen
40、eralized personII. Demonstrative Reference It is essentially a form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies or points pout the referent by locating it on scale of proximity. The system of demonstrative pronoun is given in the following table. Table: Demonstrative ReferenceSelective Non-selectiveM
41、odifier Adjunct Modifier determiner adverb determiner this these that those here now there then the Semantic category Grammatical function Class 待添加的隐藏文字内容3Proximity:near far neutralExamplesLeave that there and come here.Where do you come from?I like the lions and I like the polar bears. These are m
42、y favorites and those are my favorites too. III. Comparative ReferenceHere two types of comparison are given:(i) General Comparison (ii) Particular Comparison(i) General Comparison Here things compared show likeness or unlikeness without considering any particular property. Likeness or unlikeness is
43、 referential property as something is can be like something else.Example Its the same cat as the one we saw yesterday.Its different cat from the one we saw yesterday(ii)Particular ComparisonHere comparison is made on the scale of quantity or quality it is a matter of degree compare things on this sc
44、ale. In other words we can say it expresses the comparability between things.ExampleTake some more teaWe are demanding higher living standard. There are twice as many people there as the last time.Table: Comparative referenceModifierDeictic /epithet (see below) Submodifier /adjunctsAdjectives Adverb same identical equalsimilar additional other different elseidenticallysimilarly likewise so suchdifferently otherwisebetter, more etc comparative adjectives and quantifiersso m
