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1、 南京理工大学泰州科技学院毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译学院 (系)： 机械工程学院 专 业： 姓 名： 学 号： (用外文写)外文出处： Profession English for Industrial Engineering, 181-190 附 件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。 指导教师评语： 签名： 年 月 日注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。附件1：外文资料翻译译文人机工程学1 简介1.1 人机学的定义在试图定义人机学之前，我们有必要了解一下这个术语。美国和其他小部分国家通常使用“人机学”。尽管 “工效学”在美国也使用，但在欧洲和世界其他地区更为流行。一些人曾试图去区别这两个术
2、语，但我们认为任何区分都过于武断。在所有的实际应用中，这两个术语是同义词。另一个偶尔看到的术语（尤其在美国军方）是人类工程学。但这个术语学术界不太爱用，而且使用的越来越少。最后，工程心理学这些术语被美国的一些心理学家所使用。一些人将工程心理学视为是涉及人类能力和极限的基础研究，而人机学则更多地和信息在产品设计中的应用相关，并以此将两者区别。无需足够的解释，并不是所有人都同意这种区别。我们将通过人机学所关注的重点、目标以及方法来对其进行定义。1.2 人机学的关注重点人机学关注的是人以及人和产品、设备、设施、程序和环境在工作和日常生活中的交互。其重点是人（这与工程学相反，工程学则更多地强调纯粹技术
3、工程上的因素）和产品设计对人的影响。因此，人机学寻求改变人们使用的东西和使用这些东西的环境，以便使它们更好地符合人的能力、极限和需求。1.3 人机学的目标人机学主要有两个目标。第一个是提高工作和其他活动的实施效力和效率。这里包括提高使用的便捷性，减少错误和提高生产率。第二个目标是加强某些有力的人类价值，包括提高安全度，减少疲劳和压力，增加舒适度，加大使用者的接受程度，提高工作满意度和改善生活质量。看起来要同时达到上述各种目标是很困难的，但Chapanis（1983）提出，有两点可以帮助我们达到目标。第一，在特定的应用中，只有一个子集的目标在特定的应用中通常是最重要的。第二，目标之间是相互关联的
4、。例如，运用人机学技术设计的机器或产品通常不仅更安全，而且更容易使用，不易导致疲劳，并且使用者也会更满意。1.4 人机学的方法人机学的方法是将有关人类能力、极限、特性、行为和动机的相关信息系统地应用于设计人们所使用的产品、程序和所需环境。它包括科学调查研究，以便发现人类和他们对产品、环境等各种反应的相关信息。这些信息是提供设计意见和预测多种设计的可能效果的基础。人机学的方法还包括评价我们所设计的产品，以保证它达到预期的目标。虽然诸如为人类使用的设计、工作和生活条件最优化等词语都部分给出了人机学的印象，但没有一句精炼的句子能完全描述人机学研究的范围。如果你需要的是一个简练的包括关注焦点、目的和方
5、法等各个基本要素的人机学定义，我们推荐以下的定义，它是由Chapanis(1985)稍微修改而来的：人机学发现人类行为、能力、极限和其它特性的信息，将其用于设计工具、机器、系统、工作、任务和环境以供人类更具效益、更安全、更舒适和更有效地使用。2 人为错误2.1人为错误对一些人来说，人为错误这一词的隐含意义是责备或者祸端。但是更高效的方法是把人为错误简单地看作是一个缘由可被调查的事件。关于人为错误已经有很多定义，但以下定义包含了打多数定义的本质：人为错误是一种不恰当的或者不受欢迎的认为决定或行为，它降低了或者可能降低效率、安全度或系统的性能。在这个定义中我们需要注意两点。第一，这里定义的错误是指
6、对系统规范或者人的不良影响或潜在的影响。忘记在午餐盒中放入饼干在建造一座桥时不会被视为人为错误，但在工作场所忘记穿安全鞋或戴安全镜就会被视为人为错误。第二，一种行为不是一定要当已经造成了系统性能的退化或者对人们的不利影响才能被视作错误。一个错误在可能造成损害前被纠正仍然是一种错误。重要的一个行为必须具有对系统或人类产生不利影响的潜在可能性才能被视为错误。虽然在一些人中有一种认为错误就是“操作者”所犯的趋势，但其实与系统设计和操作相关的人也有可能犯错，例如设备的设计师、管理者、监督者和维护人员。因此，在谈及人为错误的时候，我们不应只关注操作者，而应将整个系统都考虑在内。如果人为错误包括不恰当或者
7、令人不快的行为，那么去理解一个人如何判断什么行为是恰当的或受欢迎的就非常重要。Rasmussen (1979) 指出这种判断常常是在事件发生后某个人对某种行为做出合理、谨慎评价的结果。本质上说，判断一个人为错误有些武断，因为我们在认定错误之前可能还不能确定什么行为是恰当的。不仅如此，Rasmussen(1987)还指出，要确定一个事件是人为错误完全取决于最后仲裁者定的规则。如果系统性能被判定为低于某种标准，某些人往往会沿原路返回去寻找造成这一错误的原因。需要走多远要视情况而定。你可以仅仅止步于操作者的行为本身，并认定这是一个人为错误，也可以研究是什么原因导致他有这样的行为。如果研究的话，就可能
8、追溯到其它的因素，如设备故障、管理不善、不准确或不完整的流程等。Rasmussen(1982) 发表的一种惊奇的观点认为，一种行为之所以会变成错误行为，是因为这个行为在一种不友善的环境中发生，这种环境在一个不可接受的结果发生前不允许发现和逆转。2.2 人为错误分类系统多年来出现了各种各样的错误分类方法。一种有效的分类系统要能够整理有关人为错误的数据，这种数据对于错误形成的各种方式以及如何预防错误的发生能够提供有用的见解。多年来， 在人为错误的实用分类方面有许多尝试。我们将简单地讨论其中几种分类方法来阐述这个领域的思想。离散行为的分类：其中针对个别、离散行为最简单的分类方法就是Swain和Gut
9、tman(1983)所使用的那种分类方法 l 遗漏错误l 执行错误l 顺序错误l 时间错误遗漏错误包括一些没有能够完成的事情。例如，一个电工在试图爬上变电站的钢架结构时触电死亡。要完全关闭变电站的电源需要断开很多电源插头，很显然他遗漏了其中一个。执行错误包括没有正确履行和执行的事情。例如，一个机器维修工坐在一条传送带上让他的搭档轻轻地按动按钮让传送带缓慢的向前移动几英尺。他的搭档这是正好失去平衡，用力地按动了按钮，传送带全速移动而不是缓慢移动。机器维修工被拉扯至传送带和比传送带高23cm的钢支架之间。顺序错误（其实是顺序错误的一个小分类）是指某个人在完成某项任务或者任务中的某些步骤时没有按照顺
10、序做而发生的错误。例如，一个起重机操作工要提升24吨石头。他先将支架旋转了90度再提升吊杆，而不是先提升吊杆再旋转支架，导致他在试图提升吊杆之前，起重机倾翻了。时间错误（也是顺序错误的一个小分类）是人们没有在规定的时间内完成某项动作，无论当时动作太快还是太慢。例如，手在工件和钻床之间移动太慢就是时间错误，它能造成严重的工伤事故。2.3 人为错误的处理人犯错是不可避免的。有很多方法可以降低犯错的可能性和减少错误造成的消极结果，我们就不在这里一一举例了。然而，简要地讨论有哪几类方法还是有用的。总的来说，可以通过人员的挑选和培训，以及设备、程序和环境的设计来降低犯错的可能性和其所造成的影响。挑选：挑
11、选有能力和有技术的人员来完成工作，出错的可能性会较小。一些因素像是知觉能力、智力和运动能力都应该被考虑。这种方法也有制约：(a)它并不总是容易确定需要什么样的技能和能力，(b)并不总是有可靠和有效地方法来测试所需求的技能和能力，(c)可能没有充足的合格人员。培训：可以通过对人员的适当培训来减少错误。不幸的是，人们并不总是按照培训的要求来工作。他们会忘记或者恢复他们接受培训之前已经形成的旧习惯。培训通常很昂贵，因为它必须涉及每一个人，并且在一些关键岗位，而且需要反复重新培训。后面我们会进一步讨论有关培训的事。设计：这本书的重要主题之一就是通过设备、程序和环境的设计来改善人的工作绩效，包括降低错误
12、发生的可能性和所造成的后果。一般有三大类的设计方法来处理人为错误：l 排斥性设计：这种设计使错误的操作无法进行l 预防性设计：这种设计使错误的操作很难执行，但不一定不能执行l 故障保险设计：这种设计减轻错误造成的后果而不必降低错误发生的可能性通过设计来减少错误的发生和所造成的后果，常常可以是解决人为错误最具有成本效益的一种方法。一个系统只需要设计一次，而当有新的人员成为系统的一部分的时候，挑选和培训却必须重复进行。实际上，改变机器要比改变人容易得多。关于消除人为错误，Sender(1983)和Rasmussen(1987)提出了一种有趣的观点。他们指出，人是伺服装置，必须在环境中锻炼来学习和获
13、得技能。他们认为，错误是这种实验和反复学习自然而然的结果，他们主张，错误对于发展熟练的工作技能是必要的。他们的重点是如何为犯错提供“安全”的机会（比如在培训中）或者创造一种环境来提高错误的发现和改正几率。附件2：外文原文（复印件）Human Factors Engineering1 Introduction1.1 Human Factors Engineering DefinedBefore attempting to define human factors engineering, we should say a word about the term. Human factors eng
14、ineering is the term used in the United States and a few other countries. The term ergonomics, although used in the United States , is more prevalent in Europe and the rest of the world. Some people have tried to distinguish between the two, but we believe that any distinctions are arbitrary and tha
15、t, for all practical purpose, the terms are synonymous. Another term that is occasionally seen (especially within the U.S. military) is human engineering. However, this term is less favored by the profession, and its use waning. Finally, the term engineering psychology is used by some psychologists
16、in the United States. Some have distinguished engineering psychology, as involving basic research on human capabilities and limitations, from human factors engineering, which is more concerned with the application of the information to the design of the things. Suffice it to say, not everyone would
17、agree with such a distinction.We approach the definition of human factors engineering in terms of its focus, objectives, and approach.1.2 Focus of Human factors engineeringHuman factors engineering focuses on human beings an their interaction with products, equipment, facilities, procedures, and env
18、ironments used in work and everyday living. The emphasis is on human beings (as opposed to engineering, where the emphasis is more on strictly technical engineering considerations ) and how the design of things in influences people. Human factors engineering, then, seeks to change the things people
19、use and the environments in which they use these things to better match the capabilities, limitations, and needs of people.1.3 Objectives of Human factors engineeringHuman factors engineering has two major objectives. The first is to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency with which work and other
20、 activities are carried out. Included here would be such things as increased convenience of use, reduced errors, and increased productivity. The second objective is to enhance certain desirable human values, including improved safety, reduced fatigue and stress, increased comfort, greater user accep
21、tance, increased job satisfaction, and improved quality of live.It may seem like a tall order to enhance all these varied objectives, but as Chapanis (1983) points out, two things help us. First, only a subset of the objectives are generally of highest importance in the specific application. Second,
22、 the objectives are usually correlated. For example, a machine or product that is the result of human factors engineering technology usually not only is safer, but also is easier to use, results in less fatigue, and is more satisfying to the user.1.4 Approach Of Human Factors EngineeringThe approach
23、 of human factors engineering is the systematic application of relevant information about human capabilities, limitations, characteristics, behavior, and motivation to the design of things and procedures people use and the environments in which they use them. This involves scientific investigations
24、to discover relevant information about humans and their responses to things, environments, etc. This information serves as the basis for making design recommendations and for predicting the problem effects of various design alternatives. The human factors engineering approach also involves the evalu
25、ation of the things we design to ensure that they satisfy their intended objectives.Although no short catch phrase can adequately characterize the scope of the human factors engineering field, such expressions as designing for human use and optimizing working and living conditions give a partial imp
26、ression of what human factors engineering is about. For those who would like a concise definition of human factors engineering which combines the essential elements of focus, objectives, and approach discussed above, we present the following definition, modified slightly from Chapanis(1985): Human f
27、actors engineering discovers and applies information about human behavior, abilities, limitations, and other characteristics to design of tools, machines, systems, tasks, jobs, and environments for productive, safe, comfortable, and effective human use.2 Human Error2.1 Human ErrorTo some people the
28、term human error has a connotation of blame or curser. A much more productive approach, however, is to consider human error simply as an event whose cause can be investigated. Numerous definitions have been proposed for human error, but the following embodies the essence of most of them: human error
29、 is an inappropriate or undesirable human decision or behavior that reduces, or has the potential for reducing, effectiveness, safety, or system performance. Two things should be noted about this definition. First an error is defined in terms of its undesirable effect or potential on system criteria
30、 or on people. Forgetting to pack cookies in a lunch would not be considered a human error in the context of a construction crew building a bridge, but forgetting to take safety shoes and glasses to the work site would be. Second, an action does not have to result in degraded system performance or a
31、n undesirable effect on people to be considered an error. An error that is corrected before it can cause damage is an error nonetheless. The important point is that an action must have the potential for adversely affecting system or human criteria.Although there is a tendency among some to view erro
32、rs as those of “operators”, other people involved in the design and operation of systems also can make errors, such as equipment designers, managers, supervisors, and maintenance personnel. Therefore, in talking about human error, we should consider the entire system and not focus only on the operat
33、or.If human error involves inappropriate or undesirable behavior, then it is important to understand how one determines what behavior is appropriate or desirable. Rasmussen (1979) points out that such determinations are often set by some one conducting a rational , careful evaluation of the behavior
34、 after the fact. In essence, what is considered to be a human error is somewhat arbitrary because the determination of what is appropriate may not have been established until the error was identified. In addition, Rasmussen(1987) feels that the identification of an event as a human error depends ent
35、irely upon the stop rule applied during the investigation. If system performance is judged to be lower than some standard, someone will typically try to backtrack to find the cause. How far back to go is an open question. One could stop at the operators actions and call the event a human error, or o
36、ne could investigate what caused the human to act as he or she did. The cause may then be traced to other factors, such as faulty equipment, poor management practices, inaccurate or incomplete procedures, etc. Rasmussen(1982) makes a provocative point that an action might become an error only becaus
37、e the action is performed in an unkind environment that does not permit detection and reversal of the behavior before an unacceptable consequence occurs.2.2 Human Error Classification SchemesVarious error classification schemes have been developed over the years. An effective classification scheme c
38、an be of value in organizing data on human errors and for giving useful insights into the ways in which errors are caused and how they might be prevented. Over the years, there have been numerous attempts at developing a practical taxonomy of human errors. We will briefly discuss a few such schemes
39、to illustrate the thinking in the area.Discrete-action classifications one of the simplest classification schemes for individual, discrete actions is that used by Swain and Guttman(1983)l Errors of omissionl Errors of commissionl Sequence errorsl Timing errors Errors of omission involve failure to d
40、o something. For example, an electrician was electrocuted while attempting to position himself on the steel framework of an electrical substation. There were several points to disconnect in order to shut off power completely to the substation, and he apparently forgot to disconnect one of them.Error
41、s of commission involve performing and acting incorrectly. For example, a mechanic sitting on a conveyer belt called for his partner to lightly hit the start button to jog the belt forward a few inches. The helper lost his balance momentarily and hit the button hard enough to actually start the belt
42、 moving at full speed, rather than just jogging it forward. The mechanic was pulled between the belt and a steel support high (23cm) above it.A sequence error (really a subclass of errors of commission) occurs when a person performs some task, or step in task, out of sequence. An example occurred in
43、 the case of a crane operator who was lifting a 24-ton block of stone. Rather than lifting the boom and then rotating it 90 degrees, he rotated the near flat extended boom first, and before he could lift it, and crane overturned.A timing error (also a subclass of errors of commission) occurs when a
44、person fails to perform an action within the allotted time, either performing too fast or too slowly. Taking too long to remove ones hand from a work piece in a drill press, for example, is a timing error that can result in a nasty injury.2.3 Dealing With Human ErrorIt is inevitable that human will
45、err. There are numerous specific strategies for reducing the likelihood or negative consequences of human errors, but we do not try to enumerate them here. However, a brief discussion of generic approaches might be useful. In general, the likelihood or consequences of errors can be reduced by person
46、nel selection and training and by design of the equipment, procedures, and environment.Selection : Selecting people with the capabilities and skills required to perform a job will result in fewer errors being made. Such things as perceptual, intellectual, and motor skills should be considered. The l
47、imitations with this approach are that (a) it is not always easy to determine what skills and abilities are required, (b) reliable and valid test do not always exist for measuring the required skills and abilities, and (c) there may not be an adequate supply of qualified people.Training: Errors can
48、be reduced by proper training of personnel. Unfortunately, people do not always perform as they were trained. They can forget or revert to old habits acquired before training. Training can also be expensive because it must be given to each person and, in critical situations, should include refresher training as well. We will have a little more to say about training later.Design: One of the important themes of this book is that the desi
