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1、上海应用技术学院艺术与设计学院室内设计史（论文）明清家具 班级： 学号： 姓名： 目 录目录.1前言.2明代家具特点.3清代家具特点.5明清家具区分.6结论参考文献.6 前 言明清家具同中国古代其它艺术品一样，不仅具有深厚的历史文化艺术底蕴，而且具有典雅、实用的功能，令人回味无穷。明清家具的收藏始于二十世纪三十年代。外国人开始大量地搜集、收购中国明清家具，并运往海外。在后来的几十年间，西方人将中国明清家具提升到了与中国其它文物等同的地位。我国的家具工艺有着悠久的历史，它的发展取决于人们起居方式的变化。从商周到秦汉，是以席地跪坐为中心的家具；从魏晋到隋唐，是席地坐与垂足坐并存交替的家具；北宋以后
2、，是以垂足坐为主家具。其总的趋势是矮型家具向高型家具发展。但真正将中国家具推向艺术顶峰的，还是精工细制的明式家具。优良的材质，纯朴的纹理，舒适的造型，简洁的雕饰，这些都是其它时期的家具所无法比拟的。而明式家具中夹杂着文人化的意趣，体现着古人求真崇朴的思想，这又是前朝后代的家具所无法拥有的。 中国传统家具多以较名贵的优质木材做成，这些木材均有不同的色彩和纹理，因此很少雕刻花纹，而且材质坚硬，木性稳定，能制出复杂的榫卯，以及刻出各式各样的装饰线条和花纹。所用木材有：紫檀木、花梨木、鸡翅木、铁梨木、红木、楠木、乌木、椐木等。 清代家具有不同于明式家具的独到之处。其总体尺寸要比明式家具宽大，形成稳定、
3、浑厚的气势。而样式也十分丰富：有床座榻，屏灯笼，箱橱柜，椅凳墩，桌几案等。例如新兴的太师椅就有多种式样，至于靠背、扶手、束腰、牙条等新形式，更是层出不穷。装饰上求多、求满，常运用描金、彩绘等手法，显出光华富丽、金碧辉煌的效果。而在家具的作工方面，又有京坐、广作、苏作之分，使清代家具完全系统化、风格化。本篇论文就是针对明清家具的特点以及区别做出了相对应的分析。关键字：明代家具、清代家具、木材、特点明代家具特点明代是中国古典家具发展的黄金时期.明式家具多采用硬木,以黄花梨,紫檀木最为常见.结构采用小结构拼接,使用榫卯,造型上注重功能的合理性与多样性,既要符合人的生理特点,又富贵典雅,是艺术与实用的
4、结合,明式家具极少漆,也没有过多的装饰,突出木色纹理,体现材质美,形成清新雅致,明快简约的风格。明式家具质朴简洁、豪放规整，清代家具工艺精湛、雍容典雅。 明式家具以黄花梨木为主，极少使用其他木材。而黄花梨木家具，又以桌椅、橱柜较多，没有镶嵌和雕镂，只有极少雕刻。明末清初由于黄花梨木匮乏而改用紫檀木加工制作。紫檀木家具大件甚少，木材宽一般不过八寸，木材材质好，雕刻的较少，不做镶嵌。这是我过古典家具成就的高峰和代表，在世界家具史上占有重要的地位。明式家具风格特点主要表现在以下几个方面。一、造型优美，比例适宜，刚柔相济，外表光洁，干净利落，庄重典雅，繁简得体，统一之中有变化。 以线为主、严格的比例关
5、系是明代家具造型的基础。局部与局部的比例（如坐高与椅背高的尺度比），细部装饰与整体形态的比例，都极为匀称而协调。如：椅子、桌子等家具，其上部与下部，其腿部、靠背、搭脑之间，他们的高低、长短、粗细、宽窄都会令人感到无可挑剔地匀称、协调，并且与功能要求极相符合，没有多余的累赘，整体感觉就是线的组合。其各个部件的线条挺而不僵，柔而不弱，表现出简练、质朴、典雅和大方之美。二、 结构严谨，做工精细。三、 明代家具的榫卯结构，极富科学性。不用钉子不用胶，不受自然条件的潮湿或干燥的影响，制作上采用攒边等做法。在跨度较大的局部之间，镶以牙板、牙条，圈口，券扣、矮老、卡子花等等，既美观又加强了牢固性。明代家具的
6、结构设计，是科学与艺术的极好结合。时至今日，经过几百年也不变形。三、装饰适度，繁简相宜。 明代家具的装饰手法，可以说是多种多样的，雕、镂、嵌、描都为所用。装饰用材也很广泛，螺细、藤竹、象牙、玉石等等，样样不拒但是绝不贪多对齐，也不曲艺雕琢，而是根据整体要求，作恰如其分的局部装饰。如椅子背板上，做小面积的透雕与镶嵌，在桌面的局部，施以矮老或卡子花等。虽然已经施以装饰，但是整体看，仍不失朴素与清秀的本色。可谓适宜得体，锦上添花。四、木材坚硬，纹理优美。 明代家具充分利用木材的纹理优势，发挥木料本身的自然美，这是它的又一突出特点。明代硬木家具用材，多数为黄花梨、紫檀等，这些高级硬木，都具有色调和文理
7、的自然美。工匠们在制作时，除了精工细作以外，同时不加装饰，或不作大面积的装饰，充分发挥，利用木材本身的色调，纹理的特长，形成自己特有的审美趣味和独特的艺术风格。五、具有很高的文化品位和中国特色。 在选材、加工等方面，充分体现了尊重自然、道法自然的精神。清代家具特点清代家具与明代家具不同，大体来说明式简约，清代繁琐；明式的造型取胜，清式装饰见长。清中期以后逐渐使用鸡翅木、酸枝木、铁力木、花梨木等，而新家具大多是用酸枝木和红木作材料。酸枝木家具，大件较多，雕刻花样多，嵌玉和牙、石、木、螺、景泰蓝等。花梨木家具也多雕刻、多镶嵌，并且近代产品多。明及清前期的家具式样纷呈，常有变化。明朝在造型上设计出了
8、圈椅、四出头官帽椅、圆角柜、大画案等。清朝在延续了明家具风格的基础上，又设计出了特有的家具，如红木福寿如意太师椅、炫琴案、紫檀圆凳、钉绣墩等家具。清代早期的家具继承和发展了明代家具的成就。乾隆时期又吸收了西洋的纹样并把多种工艺美术应用到家具上来。清代家具的风格特征：一、造型上浑厚、庄重这时期的家具一改前朝的挺秀，而为浑厚和庄重。突出表现为用料宽绰、尺寸加大、体态丰硕、清代太师椅的造型，最能体现清家居风格的特点、它座面加大，后背饱满，腿子粗壮。整体造型像宝座一样雄伟、庄重。二、装饰上求多、求满、富贵华丽清中期（指康熙末至嘉庆初的历史时期）的家具特点突出，成为清代家具的代表 。清式家具的装饰求多、
9、求满、求富贵、求华丽。多种材料兼用，多种工艺结合。甚至在一间家具上，也用多种手段和多种材料。雕、嵌、描金兼取、螺细、木石并用。此时家具常见通体装饰，没有空白，达到空前的富丽和辉煌。但是过分追求装饰，往往使人感到透不过气来，有时忽视使用功能，不免有争奇斗富之嫌。三、模仿家具的款式和纹样。 乾隆时，圆明园内的不少家具，采用西番莲、海贝壳等西式纹样，采用西式建筑中的花瓶栏杆、蜗形扶手、兽爪抓球等部件。明清家具区分明式家具与清式家具的区分主要根据作品的风格、形式和水平。一般以清代乾隆为界。明代和盛清以前大致皆可纳入为明式。清式则指乾隆以后直到清末民初。明式与清式相比，水平更高。明式家具之造型完美、格调
10、典雅、装饰得体、工艺技术精良，是历史上其他时代无法比拟的。明式家具继承了宋元的优秀成果。明代中期以后，社会经济高度发展，并出现了资本主义萌芽，城市空前繁荣，市民文化也有了长足的发展，家具艺术的发展得到了巨大的推动力。清初国家尚未大定，无暇顾及艺术，经济也有待恢复。到了康熙时期，军事上、政治上都取得了决定性胜利，百业待兴，焦点已转移到经济的发展。随着政权的进一步巩固和强化，文化方面明显出现了满汉合流的趋势，家具艺术也才能够在明代已取得的高度成就上继续发展。清初家具带有浓厚的明式家具特点，仍具有很高的水平和美学价值，精品众多。乾隆时，家具得到了上层的推动而加速发展，一方面根据统治阶层的趣味而创新，
11、同时渗入了西方的某些因素，大大丰富了中国家具史的内容。现代北京宫殿和皇家园林中还保存不少这时期的作品，可谓佳作纷呈，目不暇接。结论明清家具都是我们祖先的文化表现，具有深厚的历史文化艺术底蕴，而且具有典雅、实用的功能，令人回味无穷。明式家具精工细制，清代家又具有不同于明式家具的独到之处。其总体尺寸要比明式家具宽大，形成稳定、浑厚的气势。优良的材质，纯朴的纹理，舒适的造型，简洁的雕饰，这些都是其它时期的家具所无法比拟的。而明式家具中夹杂着文人化的意趣，体现着古人求真崇朴的思想，这又是前朝后代的家具所无法拥有的。参考文献百度百科、书籍中国室内设计历史Employment tribunals sort
12、 out disagreements between employers and employees.You may need to make a claim to an employment tribunal if: you dont agree with the disciplinary action your employer has taken against you your employer dismisses you and you think that you have been dismissed unfairly.For more information about dis
13、missal and unfair dismissal, seeDismissal.You can make a claim to an employment tribunal, even if you haventappealedagainst the disciplinary action your employer has taken against you. However, if you win your case, the tribunal may reduce any compensation awarded to you as a result of your failure
14、to appeal.Remember that in most cases you must make an application to an employment tribunal within three months of the date when the event you are complaining about happened. If your application is received after this time limit, the tribunal will not usually accept it.If you are worried about how
15、the time limits apply to you, take advice from one of the organisations listed underFurther help.Employment tribunals are less formal than some other courts, but it is still a legal process and you will need to give evidence under an oath or affirmation.Most people find making a claim to an employme
16、nt tribunal challenging. If you are thinking about making a claim to an employment tribunal, you should get help straight away from one of the organisations listed underFurther help.If you are being represented by a solicitor at the tribunal, they may ask you to sign an agreement where you pay their
17、 fee out of your compensation if you win the case. This is known as adamages-based agreement. In England and Wales, your solicitor cant charge you more than 35% of your compensation if you win the case.If you are thinking about signing up for a damages-based agreement, you should make sure youre cle
18、ar about the terms of the agreement. It might be best to get advice from an experienced adviser, for example, at a Citizens Advice Bureau. To find your nearest CAB, including those that give advice by e-mail, click onnearest CAB.For more information about making a claim to an employment tribunal, se
19、eEmployment tribunals.The (lack of) air up there Watch mCayman Islands-based Webb, the head of Fifas anti-racism taskforce, is in London for the Football Associations 150th anniversary celebrations and will attend Citys Premier League match at Chelsea on Sunday.I am going to be at the match tomorrow
20、 and I have asked to meet Yaya Toure, he told BBC Sport.For me its about how he felt and I would like to speak to him first to find out what his experience was.Uefa hasopened disciplinary proceedings against CSKAfor the racist behaviour of their fans duringCitys 2-1 win.Michel Platini, president of
21、European footballs governing body, has also ordered an immediate investigation into the referees actions.CSKA said they were surprised and disappointed by Toures complaint. In a statement the Russian side added: We found no racist insults from fans of CSKA.Age has reached the end of the beginning of
22、 a word. May be guilty in his seems to passing a lot of different life became the appearance of the same day; May be back in the past, to oneself the paranoid weird belief disillusionment, these days, my mind has been very messy, in my mind constantly. Always feel oneself should go to do something,
23、or write something. Twenty years of life trajectory deeply shallow, suddenly feel something, do it.一字开头的年龄已经到了尾声。或许是愧疚于自己似乎把转瞬即逝的很多个不同的日子过成了同一天的样子；或许是追溯过去，对自己那些近乎偏执的怪异信念的醒悟，这些天以来，思绪一直很凌乱，在脑海中不断纠缠。总觉得自己自己似乎应该去做点什么，或者写点什么。二十年的人生轨迹深深浅浅，突然就感觉到有些事情，非做不可了。The end of our life, and can meet many things real
24、ly do?而穷尽我们的一生，又能遇到多少事情是真正地非做不可？During my childhood, think lucky money and new clothes are necessary for New Year, but as the advance of the age, will be more and more found that those things are optional; Junior high school, thought to have a crush on just means that the real growth, but over the p
25、ast three years later, his writing of alumni in peace, suddenly found that isnt really grow up, it seems is not so important; Then in high school, think dont want to give vent to out your inner voice can be in the high school children of the feelings in a period, but was eventually infarction when g
26、raduation party in the throat, later again stood on the pitch he has sweat profusely, looked at his thrown a basketball hoops, suddenly found himself has already cant remember his appearance.童年时，觉得压岁钱和新衣服是过年必备，但是随着年龄的推进，会越来越发现，那些东西根本就可有可无；初中时，以为要有一场暗恋才意味着真正的成长，但三年过去后，自己心平气和的写同学录的时候，突然就发现是不是真正的成长了，好像
27、并没有那么重要了；然后到了高中，觉得非要吐露出自己的心声才能为高中生涯里的懵懂情愫划上一个句点，但毕业晚会的时候最终还是被梗塞在了咽喉，后来再次站在他曾经挥汗如雨的球场，看着他投过篮球的球框时，突然间发现自己已经想不起他的容颜。Originally, this world, can produce a chemical reaction to an event, in addition to resolutely, have to do, and time.原来，这个世界上，对某个事件能产生化学反应的，除了非做不可的坚决，还有，时间。A persons time, your ideas are
28、 always special to clear. Want, want, line is clear, as if nothing could shake his. Also once seemed to be determined to do something, but more often is he backed out at last. Dislike his cowardice, finally found that there are a lot of love, there are a lot of miss, like shadow really have been doo
29、med. Those who do, just green years oneself give oneself an arm injection, or is a self-righteous spiritual.一个人的时候，自己的想法总是特别地清晰。想要的，不想要的，界限明确，好像没有什么可以撼动自己。也曾经好像已经下定了决心去做某件事，但更多的时候是最后又打起了退堂鼓。嫌恶过自己的怯懦，最终却发现有很多缘分，有很多错过，好像冥冥之中真的已经注定。那些曾经所谓的非做不可，只是青葱年华里自己给自己注射的一支强心剂，或者说，是自以为是的精神寄托罢了。At the moment, the sk
30、y is dark, the air is fresh factor after just rained. Suddenly thought of blue plaid shirt; Those were broken into various shapes of stationery; From the corner at the beginning of deep friendship; Have declared the end of the encounter that havent start planning. Those years, those days of do, fina
31、lly, like youth, will end in our life.此刻，天空是阴暗的，空气里有着刚下过雨之后的清新因子。突然想到那件蓝格子衬衫；那些被折成各种各样形状的信纸；那段从街角深巷伊始的友谊；还有那场还没有开始就宣告了终结的邂逅计划那些年那些天的非做不可，终于和青春一样，都将在我们的人生中谢幕。Baumgartner the disappointing news: Mission aborted. r plays an important role in this mission. Starting at the ground, conditions have to be v
32、ery calm - winds less than 2 mph, with no precipitation or humidity and limited cloud cover. The balloon, with capsule attached, will move through the lower level of the atmosphere (the troposphere) where our day-to-day weather lives. It will climb higher than the tip of Mount Everest (5.5 miles/8.8
33、5 kilometers), drifting even higher than the cruising altitude of commercial airliners (5.6 miles/9.17 kilometers) and into the stratosphere. As he crosses the boundary layer (called the tropopause),e can expect a lot of turbulence.The supersonic descent could happen as early as Sunda.The weatheThe
34、balloon will slowly drift to the edge of space at 120,000 feet ( Then, I would assume, he will slowly step out onto something resembling an Olympic diving platform.Below, the Earth becomes the concrete bottom of a swimming pool that he wants to land on, but not too hard. Still, hell be traveling fas
35、t, so despite the distance, it will not be like diving into the deep end of a pool. It will be like he is diving into the shallow end. Skydiver preps for the big jumpWhen he jumps, he is expected to reach the speed of sound - 690 mph (1,110 kph) - in less than 40 seconds. Like hitting the top of the
36、 water, he will begin to slow as he approaches the more dense air closer to Earth. But this will not be enough to stop him completely.If he goes too fast or spins out of control, he has a stabilization parachute that can be deployed to slow him down. His team hopes its not needed. Instead, he plans
37、to deploy his 270-square-foot (25-square-meter) main chute at an altitude of around 5,000 feet (1,524 meters).In order to deploy this chute successfully, he will have to slow to 172 mph (277 kph). He will have a reserve parachute that will open automatically if he loses consciousness at mach speeds.Even if everything goes as planned, it wont. Baumgartner still will free fall at a speed that would cause you and me to pass out, and no parachute is guaranteed to work higher than 25,000 feet (7,620 meters).cause there
