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1、妊娠糖尿病,湘雅三医院内分泌科 莫朝晖,妊娠期糖尿病定义,妊娠期首次发生或发现的不同程度的糖代谢异常称为妊娠期糖尿病(Gestational Diabetes Mellitus GDM),流行病学调查,GDM发生率各家报道自1%14%不等糖尿病孕妇中8090%以上为妊娠糖尿病美国GDM发生率4%,每年约超过135,000 GDM,GDM4%,Non-diabetes96%,流行病学调查,国内1997年调查结果为2.9%,2004年北医大资料GDM与GIGT的总体发病率逐年升高,达61%波兰的研究显示,1997年GDM的发生率为3.7%墨西哥资料显示GDM的发生率为6.9%GDM发病率与种族相关
2、,欧美白种人患病率较低,为0.2%2%,黑人或加勒比海地区为其3倍;经济状况、空腹血糖水平、GDM家族史、肥胖者体重指数超过25kg/m2、年龄超过35岁等方面对GDM发生率的影响均有显著性。妊娠糖耐量出现异常主要发生在妊娠未3个月,GDM病因与发病机理,GDM是遗传因素与环境因素共同作用的结果 与型糖尿病有许多类同点 遗传因素:GDM遗传易感性 候选基因如:KCNJ11,Glucokinase GCK,Hepatocyte nuclear factor-1alpha HNF1A,变异的MODY 等 环境因素:年龄增加、肥胖、高脂饮食、妊娠GDM产妇将来发生型糖尿病的危险性增加,型糖尿病的危险
3、也增加,妊娠期高血糖的机理研究Mechanism of high blood sugar during pregnancy,胎盘激素增加Placental hormones increase 孕20周开始胎盘泌乳素(Placental lactogen HLP)分泌增加,血循环中浓度升高,促进脂肪分解。孕30周后血浆中黄体酮(Progesterone),绒毛膜泌乳激素(Chorionic prolactin)及雌激素(estrogen)水平均明显升高,持续至分娩。这些激素的增加,使靶细胞对胰岛素的敏感性降低(reduced tissue sensitivity to insulin)。母体的皮
4、质醇、PRL增加,妊娠期高血糖的机理研究Mechanism of high blood sugar during pregnancy,将上述胎盘激素应用于非妊娠个体如男性,亦可引起胰岛素抵抗。取大鼠脂肪组织或骨骼肌,置于上述激素中,胰岛素介导的葡萄糖摄取率明显降低。糖尿病妊娠期胰岛素剂量增加,分娩后剂量减少(Diabetes during pregnancy dose of insulin increased,after delivery agent reduced)。妊娠期糖尿病需胰岛素控制高血糖,一旦分娩即可停用胰岛素,表明胎盘的产物可使母体产生胰岛素抗体。,胚胎胰腺内分泌发育 Pancr
5、eas Development,首次检测到胰腺内分泌细胞约在胚胎78 wk(The first pancreatic endocrine cells are detected around 78 wk of human development)胰岛形成约在周,周血管化(Islet formation begins at 12 wk and becomes vascularized from the 16th week)孕中期,有神经支配,细胞种类分化,合成单一的激素(Innervation starts around half-gestation,and individual cell typ
6、es differentiate to synthesize a single pancreatic hormone)在孕未三月的早期出现成熟的胰岛,正常新生儿出生时在胰腺中占(Mature islets are achieved by early third trimester and account for about 4%of the total pancreas in the normal human infant at birth).孕晚期胎儿的细胞能对糖和氨基酸水平迅速作出变化 During late gestation,the fetal-cells respond readil
7、y to changes in the glucose and amino acid levels,宫内糖尿病环境对胎儿发育的影响Abnormal organ development in offspring exposed to a diabetic intrauterine environment,新生儿并发症的程度依赖母亲发生糖尿病时胚胎细胞所处的分化时期。孕前血糖水平与胎儿畸形、自然流产的发生率增高相关,HbA1C接近10%时,胎儿畸形发生率高达20%25%孕前血糖高可引起神经管缺陷、心、肾、胃肠畸形等。可有胰岛功能缺陷(-cell 减少很可能发生在妊娠中期,因为这期是胰内分泌增殖分化
8、的关键时期)影响血管发生 这可影响胰腺发育高胰岛素血症 影响长期的代谢,不同种系可能不同亲本印记改变:代谢程序性控制(The concept of metabolic programming)宫内改变和出生后环境在后来的生命中易发生某些异常,也可能为代谢程序性控制的结果,Glucose,Insulin,Mother,Fetus,Placenta,FetalHyperglycemia,FetalHyperinsulinemia,Stimulates fetal pancreas,妊娠糖尿病对胎儿的影响The infants of women with GDM,25%85%的 GDM 患者会出现各
9、种母婴并发症,妊娠糖尿病的新生儿The infants of women with GDM,新生儿体重超过4kg谓之巨大儿(macrosomia),在妊娠糖尿病中较为多见。母体血循环中,葡萄糖、氨基酸及酮体可自由通过胎盘,胰岛素及胰高血糖素是不能通过胎盘的。母体血糖较高,20周以后的胎儿胰岛细胞相应合成与分泌适量胰岛素,细胞亦肥大,胎儿生长较快,皮下脂肪较多。新生儿低血糖症,低钙血症,红细胞增多症,肺透明膜病及高胆红素血症的发生率均较正常多。,GDM子代发生糖尿病危险性a greater risk of T2D present in offspring of women with GDM,GD
10、M妇女子代成年后,出现肥胖、糖耐量异常及糖尿病的危险增加Pima Indian中研究报告:1519岁52%体重超过40%妊娠期DM妇女子代2024 岁患DM约 45%,相对9%个体母亲妊娠后发生DM(At age 2024 yr,45%of individuals whose mothers were diabetic during pregnancy developed diabetes compared with 9%of subjects for whom the mothers became diabetic after pregnancy)宫内糖尿病环境中出生者2534岁糖尿病发生率
11、达70%,非糖尿病母亲的子代不到妊娠未个月的小时血糖()与其子代的型糖尿病的危险性相关,既使为的母亲,孕未个月的小时血糖水平与其子代型糖尿病的累积发病率关系,Gestational Glucose Tolerance and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Young Pima Indian Offspring,Diabetes 55:460-465,2006,Pima Indian Offspring 研究,妊娠未个月的小时血糖水平与新生儿体重关系,Diabetes 55:460-465,2006,Pima Indian Offspring 研究,血糖水平与发生巨大胎儿
12、macrosomia的风险,BG 1 hour after beginning the meal(mg/dL),%Risk of Macro-somia,Jovanovic L et al.Maternal postprandial blood glucose levels and infant birth weight:The Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study.Am J Obstet Gynecol.1991;164:103.,8090100110120130140150160170180,6050403020100,体重与2型糖尿病风险的关系:The U-
13、Shaped Curve,0,5,10,15,20,25,1500,2500,3500,4500,Birthweight(grams),Percent,宫内代谢因素在成年后糖尿病发生中的作用研究,成年后发生糖尿病除基因因素,宫内糖尿病环境增加了肥胖和型糖尿病的危险GDM妇女子代发生糖尿病危险较其母亲出现之前出生的同胞增加3.7倍动物模型的研究:Intrauterine growth-retarded(IUGR)rats develop diabetes,Gestational Diabetes Leads to the Development of Diabetes in Adulthood
14、in the Rat,Diabetes 51:1499-1506,2002,GDM动物模型研究,妊娠天大鼠诱发子宫胎盘机能不全出生的子代生长迟缓,在周龄与雄鼠繁殖育种这些动物妊娠期渐渐出现高血糖、高胰岛素血症并糖耐量和胰岛素抵抗妊娠糖尿病的鼠崽(IDMs)后来发展为糖尿病,AC:Blood glucose levels during an intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test performed sequentially at 1 week(A),7 weeks(B),and 15 weeks(C)of age in IDM and control ra
15、ts.Values are the means SE from eight animals from each group.*P 0.05 vs.control.,妊娠糖尿病的大鼠子代()糖耐量的变化,Gestational Diabetes Leads to the Development of Diabetes in Adulthood in the Rat,Diabetes 51:1499-1506,2002,GDM动物模型研究,at 1 week(A)and 15 weeks(B)of age in IDM and control rats,insulin tolerance test
16、s.,GDM动物模型研究,妊娠糖尿病的大鼠子代()胰岛素耐受试验 胰岛素抵抗,Diabetes 51:1499-1506,2002,妊娠糖尿病的大鼠子代()从出生到周龄的体重变化,Diabetes 51:1499-1506,2002,GDM动物模型研究,the rate of-cell proliferation was significantly reduced in IDM animals and continued to decline as the animals aged,GDM动物模型研究,妊娠糖尿病的大鼠子代()-cell 增殖率,Diabetes 51:1499-1506,20
17、02,Glucose uptake in isolated epitrochlearis muscle from IDMs and controls at 5 weeks of age,妊娠糖尿病的大鼠子代()骨骼肌葡萄糖摄取率,GDM动物模型研究,Diabetes 51:1499-1506,2002,糖尿病与妊娠恶性循环,GDM妇女中2型糖尿病发生的预测,Cheung文章荟萃分析发现GDM远期发生糖尿病的总的相对危险度是6.0GDM在产后的516年内约有17%63%发展为2型糖尿病种族差异:印第安人最高孕期空腹血糖5.8mmol/L未来发生2型糖尿病的危险是空腹血糖26.4kg/m2、GDM
18、发生的孕周早及孕期需要胰岛素治疗未来糖尿病的发生率增高GDM孕妇的年龄和产次在与糖尿病发病的关系在不同的研究中显示不同的结果,妊娠糖尿病筛查,目前临床上,最广泛应用的GDM筛查方法为50 g GCTADA及第四届GDM国际会议均建议:筛查对象:对于年龄25岁或年龄25岁但肥胖、一级亲内有糖尿病者或为高危种群的孕妇必需在妊娠2428周 中进行糖尿病筛查。筛查方法:任意时间进行50g葡萄糖筛查试验1小时,大于7.8(7.2)mmol/L者应进行75g葡萄糖诊断试验。,妊娠糖尿病筛查及诊断标准,GDM的诊断标准:符合下述任何一项标准,即可诊断为GDM。妊娠期两次或两次以上FPG58 mmol/L;5
19、0 g GCT 1 h血糖111 mmol/L同时伴一次FPG 58 mmol/LOGTT各点血糖两项或两项以上达到或超 过异常的标准。目前国内外应用的OGTT标准不一致。,妊娠糖尿病筛查及诊断标准(ADA),妊娠糖尿病诊断标准,WHO诊断标准,75g 葡萄糖 OGTT,FPG 7.0mmol/L 和/或OGTT2h 血浆葡萄糖7.8mmol/L 即DM、IGT可诊断为 GDM,IDF 的 诊 断 标 准 与WHO 相同,中华糖尿病学会(CDS)建议使用 WHO 的诊断标,目前常用的不同OGTT标准,妊娠期糖尿病筛选和诊断,孕妇且有高危因素,首次产前检查时筛选,孕妇无高危因素,妊娠 24-28
20、周间筛选,筛选试验50克葡萄糖激惹试验异常?,24-28周间 再次筛选,无需进一步检查,如正常无需进一步检查,如异常作75克OGTT,一项值异常或任何一项高限,监测血糖并进行饮食计划,平均 FBG 5.5mmol/L平均 2hrPPBG 7mmol/L,一项值异常或任何一项高限,监测血糖并进行饮食计划,平均 FBG 5.5mmol/L平均 2hrPPBG 7mmol/L,确诊妊娠期糖尿病,诊断筛选试验阳性者于3天内 作 75克OGTT 2项值异常?,年龄25岁孕前BMI25无糖尿病家族史无大于胎龄儿分娩史,否,否,否,否,否,否,否,是,是,是,是,是,是,GDM的分类,A1级:FBG58 m
21、mol/L,经饮食控制,餐后2 h血糖67 mmol/L。A2级:经饮食控制,FBG58 mmol/L,餐后2 h血糖67 mmol/L,妊娠期需加用胰岛素控制血糖。GDM A1级者,母儿合并症较低,产后糖代谢异常多能恢复正常。GDM A2级孕妇,母儿并发症的发生率较高,胎儿畸形发生率增加,妊娠糖尿病的治疗,治疗的目标是保证母亲和胎儿的健康。血糖维持在正常水平,空腹血糖5.8mmol/L餐后2小时血糖6.7mmol/LHbA1C6%同时避免低血糖及酮症的发生The Fifth International Workshop Conference on Gestational Diabetes36
22、 currently recommends the following:Fasting plasma glucose 90-99 mg/dL(5.05.5 mmol/L)and One-hour postprandial plasma glucose less than 140 mg/dL(7.8 mmol/L)or Two-hour postprandial plasma glucose less than 120-127 mg/dL(6.77.1 mmol/L),营养治疗(一),为供给孕妇及胎儿充足的营养,要合理控制总热量。妊娠全过程分为三个时期,妊1期是13月,妊2期是46个月,妊3期是
23、79个月。妊1期的热量摄取与孕前相同。妊2期开始,按其孕前理想体重给予30-38Kcal/kg/日的热量。For obese women(BMI 30 kg/m2),a 3033%calorie restriction(to 25 kcal/kg actual weight per day or less 一般在妊娠中、晚期孕妇体重的增加应保持在15kg/月以内整个孕期妊娠期的体重增加不宜超过9(12)kg。,营养治疗(二),碳水化合物摄取量每日200300g(Carbohydrates should account for no more than 50%of the diet)碳水化合物过
24、少易发生酮症。在原有蛋白质摄取量基础上,增加1525g/日(其中优质蛋白质至少占1/3)。鼓励孕妇多食用绿色新鲜蔬菜,以补充维生 素;及食用猪肝、猪血制品以补充铁;并注 意食用含碘食物。全天总热量应分56次进餐,少量多餐有助 于稳定控制血糖,减少餐后高血糖及餐前低 血糖的机会.Avoiding single large meals and foods with a large percentage of simple carbohydrates.A total of 6 feedings per day is preferred,with 3 major meals and 3 snacks
25、to limit the amount of energy intake presented to the bloodstream at any interval.,胰岛素治疗,孕妇的血糖不能维持在正常范围时,应予以胰岛素治疗。胰岛素制剂宜选用基因重组人胰岛素,短效人胰岛素每日注射34次。必要时睡前增加一次中效胰岛素以控制凌晨高血糖。Insulins lispro,aspart,regular and NPH are well-studied in pregnancy and regarded as safe and efficacious.Insulin glargine is less w
26、ell-studied When more than 20%of postprandial blood glucose levels exceed 130 mg/dL,administer lispro insulin(4-8 U SC initially)before meals.If more than 10 U of regular insulin is needed before the noon meal,adding 8-12 U of NPH insulin before breakfast helps achieve control.When more than 10%of f
27、asting glucose levels exceed 95 mg/dL,initiate 6-8 U NPH insulin hs.Titrate doses as needed according to blood glucose levels.,Use of an insulin pump may improve glycemic control while enhancing patient convenience.随孕周增加,胰岛素用量不断增加,可比非孕期增加50%100%甚至更高。胰岛素用量高峰时期在孕3233w,部分患者于孕晚期胰岛素用量减少。,Oral hypoglycemi
28、c agents,Glyburide许多研究提示格列本脲安全、有效,涉及775例妊娠者前瞻性及回顾性研究均显示格列本脲与胰岛素同样安全、有效(All studies comparing glyburide to traditional insulin have demonstrated similar levels of glycemic control.Most studies show no differences in maternal or neonatal outcomes with glyburide)。格列本脲很少通过胎盘,可能因为其与血浆蛋白结合(Glyburide is mi
29、nimally transported across the human placenta)格列本脲使血糖成功控制比率79-86%.存在下例情况不易控制:advanced maternal age,earlier gestational age at diagnosis,higher gravidity and parity,and higher mean fasting glucose 格列本脲即便用,不建议妊娠前三个月使用。Glyburide should not be used in the first trimester because its effects,if any,on th
30、e embryo are unknown.Research in this area,though needed,has been difficult given the known teratogenic effects of the first generation agents,which readily crossed the placenta.不进入到乳汁,人乳喂养时安全Glyburide has been shown to be safe in breastfeeding,with no transfer into human milk,Metformin 二甲双胍可 通过胎盘(c
31、rosses the placenta and cord levels have demonstrated even higher levels than maternal levels)除初期一项研究,其他研究显示二甲双瓜对母子均安全、有效,不增加先兆子痫、围产期死亡率,Prepregnancy management of women with preexisting diabet,Patients should take a prenatal vitamin containing at least 1.0 mg of folic acid daily for at least 3 mont
32、hs prior to conception to minimize the risk of neural tube defects in the fetus.A smooth glucose profile throughout the day,with no hypoglycemic reactions,HbA1C 6.5%.,新生儿的处理:,针对胎儿出生后易发生低血糖、肺发育不成熟、NRDS等情况,生后1小时内喂50%葡萄糖水数滴,12h后再给数毫升,以后每小时给5%葡萄糖水1530m,l并及早开始母乳喂养及按需补乳,检测血糖防止发生低血糖,同时注意密切观察肺功能,出现NRDS征象及早给予肺表面活性物质及辅助呼吸。,产后观察,绝大多数妊娠期糖尿病在分娩后即可停用胰岛素,仅个别病人尚需少量胰岛素。产后68周作75g 葡萄糖耐量试验以明确糖尿病诊断,约2为2型糖尿病,8为糖耐量低减,60 70 糖耐量正常。经过长期观察将会发现更多的2 型糖尿病。产后适当控制饮食,避免肥胖是预防或推迟2型糖尿病发生的基本措施。母乳喂养有利妊娠糖尿病的恢复,