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1、课文内容Chapter 1 The Structure of the English Sentence 一、复习建议本章是全书的绪论，简明扼要地介绍了本书所涉及的内容，目的是使学员对语法有个总的了解，为后面学习各章节打好基础。由于绪论中大部分内容比较简单，所以有一定语法基础的学员可以快读和跳读。因为该章内容比较基础，概括性较强，所以历年考试中涉及的很少，只在2007年4月的考试中考查了简单动词和复杂动词的区别。二、本章重要知识点【例题】1. What is the difference between a simple verb phrase and a complex verb phrase
2、? (P16)本题的关键在于对简单动词和复杂动词区别的理解记忆。 【答案】The difference is that the former goes without auxiliaries and the latter goes with it. 【例题】2. Distinguish root, stem, and base as morphological terms. 词根、词干、词基作为形态学术语的区别 (P8)【答案】A root is that part of a word that remains when all affixes have been removed. (e.g.
3、 force in enforce and touch in untouchables). A root is not further analyzable in morphological terms. A stem has to do with inflectional features and is the part that remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. (e.g. chair in chairs, work in worked). A base is any form to which affixes
4、 of any kind can be added (e.g. touch in touchable, touchable in untouchable, and untouchable in untouchables). 去掉所有词缀剩余的那一部分叫词根。从形态学上无法将词根进一步划分；词干和词的屈折变化有关，是去掉词的所有屈折词缀后剩余的那一部分；词基是可以加任何词缀的任何形式。Chapter 2 Sentence Types一、复习建议本章主要讨论英语中四种基本句子类型（陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句）的语法功能和交际功能。不规则附加疑问句是本章近几年来考查的首要重点，不仅多次以改写句子
5、的题型进行考查，也多次以单项选择或填空题的形式进行考查，学员要务必掌握该知识点。否定句中否定词的选择考查的也不少，仅在2009年4月一套试卷中就考查了四次，因此也要重点掌握。本章重要术语：declarative(s)陈述句；interrogative(s)疑问句；imperative(s)祈使句；exclamative(s)/ exclamations感叹句；assertive肯定的；assertion肯定；non-assertive非肯定的；non-assertion非肯定；negative否定的；negation否定；semi-negative半否定词；transferred negati
6、on否定转移；tag question/question tag附加疑问句；modal auxiliaries情态动词二、本章重要知识点（一）否定词的选择1.否定句可以用不同的形式来加强否定语气，常用的加强词是never，如Ive never been there before.的语气比I havent been there before.强。另外还有其他的加强感情色彩的词。如：She doesnt like him at all. Ive never in all my life seen such a swarm of ants. Not a single candidate manage
7、d to pass the test. These goods are by no means satisfactory.2. none和neither 是两个相关的否定词，none相当于not any（用于三个或三个以上），neither相当于not one nor the other（用于两个之间）。如： They have tested several samples, but none is of the quality required. They proposed two solutions, but neither seemed available to us.3.否定也可以通过
8、半否定词来实现，即意义上否定而形式上不否定的词，包括：seldom, rarely, hardly, scarcely, barely, little, few等。它们后面的附加问句要用肯定形式。如： You seldom get up late, do you? They could barely read and write, could they?【真题】：AFill in the blank with assertive, non-assertive or negative words:【例题填空题】I think Ive lost that green scarf of mine;
9、I cant find it _.【答案】anywhere 【例题填空题】“Id like some more cheese.” “Im sorry theres _ left.”【答案】none【例题填空题】Im trying to persuade him to come but Im getting _.【答案】nowhere【例题填空题】Satellite technology offers the opportunity, as _ before, for continuous television coverage of major international events.【答案
10、】never（二）否定转移（transferred negation）否定转移指的是否定从从句被转移到主句，这种否定转移一般与表示“看法，意见”的词一起出现，如：think, believe, suppose, imagine和expect。例如：I think (that) he wont come tomorrow.I dont think (that) hell come tomorrow.尽管否定词放在从句中比放在主句中语气更强烈，但是不论是在口语还是书面语中，否定转移更为常见。尤其要注意否定转移后面的附加问句的形式。例如：I dont imagine Tony will learn
11、from this lesson, will he?（三）附加疑问句（tag questions） 又叫反义疑问句，由陈述句加简短问句构成，常用的形式是：前肯后否，前否后肯。这里主要讲不规则附加疑问句。1.祈使句（imperatives），例如： Turn down the radio, wont you/will you? Dont turn on TV, will you? Lets talk to the manager, shall we? Lets not talk to the manager, shall we? Let us go to school together, wil
12、l you?2.附加疑问句中代词常常代表陈述句的主语，但也有特殊情况，如果主语是不定代词everybody, everyone, anybody, anyone, somebody, someone, nobody, no one时，附加问句中主语用he或they。如： Everyone is here, isnt he/arent they? Nobody agreed with you, did he/did they?3.有have的陈述句的附加问句是用dont 还是havent根据上下文中have的意义。一般来说，助动词have（除have to外）应与havent 搭配。例如：You
13、 have already heard the news, havent you?She had done her work by the time you arrived, hadnt she?They have to live on their own, dont they?John had to work harder, didnt he? 实义动词have除了拥有、占有等意义外，附加问句一律用dont。例如：We all had a wonderful time at the party, didnt we?You had your hair cut yesterday, didnt
14、you?She has coffee with sugar, doesnt she?You have a lot of friends, dont you/havent you?4.情态动词（modal auxiliaries）也是一大难点，特别是在表示推测意义时，在下列例句中，附加问句都有两种形式。 She must be over 20, mustnt she/isnt she? You could have heard the news last night, couldnt you/didnt you? They should have arrived there by now, sh
15、ouldnt they/havent they?may是情态动词的一个例外，因为几乎不用maynt 这个缩略形式，特别是在美语中。解决的办法是在表示推测意义时使用cant。例如： That may be your lost car, cant it?在附加问句中，常用shouldnt 代替oughtnt，这在口语中特别常见。例如： We ought to leave now, oughtnt we/shouldnt we?5.如果陈述句部分含有否定词或半否定词，附加问句要用肯定形式。例如： No one listened to him, did they? She seldom smiles,
16、 does she? He hardly ever shows up these days, does he?【真题】：【例题填空题】Nobody in the class agrees with you,_?【答案】does he/do they【例题填空题】Everyone is excited by the news, _?【答案】isnt he/arent they【例题填空题】Lets not take John with us on our family outing this time, _?【答案】shall we【例题填空题】John hardly speaks to any
17、body in the class, _?【答案】does he 【例题填空题】Nobody agreed with you, _? 【答案】did he/did they【例题填空题】Lets go out to dinner, _? 【答案】shall we【例题填空题】You had your watch repaired yesterday, _? 【答案】didnt you【例题填空题】Close the door, _? 【答案】will you/wont you【例题填空题】Lets talk to the manager, _ (we)?【答案】shall we【例题填空题】S
18、he has coffee with sugar, _(she)?【答案】doesnt she【例题改写句子】Turning the following imperative into a tag question.Dont let the children eat a lot of sweets and ice creams.【答案】Dont let the children eat a lot of sweets and ice creams, will you?【例题】Using a question tag: Bob rarely got drunk.【答案】Bob rarely go
19、t drunk, did he?【例题】Using a question tag: Everybody knows what he has to do.【答案】Everybody knows what he has to do, does he/do they?（四）祈使句（commands/imperatives）祈使句往往没有主语，以动词原形开头。加上主语you可以起强调作用。例如：You be patient.You shut up.另一种表示强调的方法是在句首加do。例如： Do behave yourself. Do shut up.祈使句的否定形式常在句首加dont 或do not
20、，并将句中的肯定词换成非肯定词。Let引导的祈使句的否定形式是：把not放在代词后或用dont，但后者不太正式。例如：Lets not go out until after the rain. Dont lets go out until after the rain. (infml)Let me not try again.Dont let me try again. (infml)Let him not disturb me.Dont let him disturb me. (infml)【例题填空题】_ (not lets) go out until after the rain.【答案
21、】Lets not / Dont lets（五）感叹句（exclamations）感叹句主要有两大类型：由what引导的感叹句和由how引导的感叹句。在感叹句中，主语和动词不需要颠倒。what修饰名词，how 修饰形容词、副词或动词。例如：What a good day it is! What a long time he has been working!What friendly people they are!How foolish he is!How fast he is running!How I love you!How long a meeting we had this aft
22、ernoon! = What a long meeting we had this afternoon!Part Words and phrases(词和短语)一、名词区别名词词类的一个重要标准是名词的数，一些名词有数的变化(a table/tables)，一些没有(butter/*butters)。在单数变为复数时，大部分是有规律的，但也有不规则变化，这些不规则变化大多是外来词。英语中有许多词经常以单数或复数形式出现，它们被划分为单数或复数，它们缺乏数的对比，主语和动词要一致。我们主要解决一些疑难问题：以单数或复数形式存在的名词和复数不规则变化的名词。1.以单数形式存在的名词1)专用名词专有
23、名词只有一个意思，即便以复数形式出现，它永远是单数，如：The United Nations has two official languages：English and Spanish.美国有两种官方语言：英语和西班牙语。 The United States has its headquarters located in New York.联合国的总部在纽约。但是，the Netherlands和Philippines可为单数也可为复数：The Netherlands is/are famous for two things：tulips and football.荷兰有两样东西举世闻名：郁
24、金香和足球。The Philippines is/are an island country.菲律宾是一个岛国。还有一些表示地名的专有名词，以复数形式出现，也按复数形式对待：the Alps，the Rockies，the Highlands，the Balkans，the Maldives，the Bermudas，the Himalayas，Niagara Falls等。人名一般为单数，当表示一家人时为复数：The Joneses are coming to the party this evening.琼斯一家今晚来参加宴会。The Blacks are away on holidays
25、.布赖克一家出去度假了。两个或两个以上的人同名时，用复数：A：May I speak to Mark，Please？我能和马克说话吗？B：We have two Marks here. The young Mark or the old Mark？我们有两个马克，是小马克和老马克？ A：The young Mark，I think.我想是小马克。2)不可数名词不可数名词中不论是具体名词(milk，water)还是抽象名词(laughter，hatred)，一般都是单数形式，包括某些以s结尾的词，有些偶尔用作复数：(1)以ics结尾的表示科学、学科等的词：acoustics，athletics，
26、classics，gymnastics，linguistics，mathematics，mechanics，optics，physics，plastics，politics，statistics等。其中，有的词用作普通意义时，可用其复数形式，如：His politics(=political opinions)are different from mine.他的政见和我不同。Her mathematics(=ability to solve mathematical problems)are awful.她的数学水平特差。(2)以s结尾的表示疾病的词：appendicitis，arthriti
27、s，bronchitis，diabetes，hepatitis，measles，mumps，rickets，shingles等。(其中，有的词特别是最后三个词可当成复数)。(3)以s结尾的表示游戏或比赛的词：billiards，bowls，darts，dominoes，draughts，skittles等。有些不可数名词以复数形式出现时，表示强度、量大的或带有文学色彩：the snows of Kilimanjaro吉力马札罗山的雪the sands of Sahara撒哈拉沙漠的沙子sailing on the great waters在宽阔的水面上航行2.常以复数形式出现的名词 1)由两个
28、相等部分组成的工具、衣服：binoculars，calipers，compasses，flares，forceps，glasses，jeans，pants，pincers，pliers，pyjamas，scales，scissors，shades，shears，shorts，spectacles，suspenders，tights，tongs，trousers等。(注意：当这些名词用作形容词，应去掉结尾s，如：a trouser leg，a spectacle case)2)一些集体名词：cattle，clergy(偶尔用作单数)，gentry，people，police，vermin等。3)
29、其他以s结尾的名词：archives，arms，belongings，clothes，congratulations，contents，customs，dregs，earnings，fireworks，funds，goods，greens，lodgings，looks，minutes，oats，outskirts，pains，premises，savings，spirits，stairs，suburbs，surroundings，thanks，topics，wages等。3.不规则复数凡不是以加s或es构成的名词复数，叫做不规则复数。不规则复数由其相对应的单数形式变化而成，没有规律可遵循。所以
30、不规则复数也要当成一个生词来记忆。大多数不规则复数是外来词，如拉丁语和希腊语，所以，学习一下这些语言的形态学也是很有用的。 不规则复数的一般类型包括：拼写和发音不规则的复数，单复数同形，外来词，复合词的复数形式。1）拼写和发音不规则的复数：(1)古英语中的复数：brotherbrethren(不常见的)，childchildren，footfeet，louselice，manmen，mousemice，oxoxen，pennypence(五便士)pennies(硬币)，toothteeth，womanwomen，但是German的复数形式是Germans，man不构成一个单独的成分，又如gen
31、tleman和doorman是复合词，其复数形式是gentlemen和doormen。(2)以f或fe结尾发/f/音的名词变复数： 规则变化：beliefbeliefs，chiefchiefs，cliffcliffs，proofproofs等。不规则变化：calfcalves，elfelves，halfhalves，knifeknives，leafleaves，lifelives，loafloaves，selfselves，sheafsheaves，shelfshelves，thiefthieves，wifewives，wolfwolves等。两种变化形式：dwarfdwarfs/dwarve
32、s，hoofhoofs/hooves，scarfscarfs/scarves，wharfwharfs/wharves等。(3)以o结尾的名词变复数规则变化：EskimoEskimos，FilipinoFilipinos，kilokilos，photophotos，radioradios，solosolos，sopranosopranos，studiostudios等。不规则变化：heroheroes，potatopotatoes，tomatotomatoes等。两种形式均可：cargocargos/cargoes，mosquitomosquitos/mosquitoes，volcanovolc
33、anos/volcanoes等。2）单复数同形(1)部分动物：deer，salmon，sheep，trout等。(Ive caught three salmon for our lunch.)(2)尺度、重度：foot，pound，stone等。(注意：这些名词也可以用s结尾)例如：He is five foot/feet tall. She is six foot two inches tall.She weighs 13 stone(s).(3)以ese结尾的表示国籍：Chinese，Japanese，Lebanese，Portuguese，Vietnamese等。(4)单、复数均能以s/
34、es结尾的名词：barracks，corps，crossroads，gallows，headquarters，means，series，species，works(=factory)，shambles等。(如：one/two species；one/two crossroads)4.定冠词的用法定冠词the的基本用法是用于特指，使用定冠词时，讲话人假定听者能根据语言关系或环境关系来确定所指的例子。 定冠词能修饰许多名词，包括可数名词的单复数形式、不可数名词和专有名词。我们先从可数名词单数形式开始，当the修饰可数名词单数时，一般为特指。但是，在特定的条件下，类指也不算少见。一些表示机构的可数名
35、词单数，可以不要冠词或其他限定词。例如：They go to church every Sunday morning.他们每个星期天早上去教堂。She stayed in hospital for three weeks after the accident.事故发生后，他在医院里住了三个星期。She had to work very hard because all her three children were still in school.她必须努力工作，因为她的三个孩子都在上学。如果表示建筑而不是机构，名词前常加冠词：The church was pulled down for a
36、new and bigger one.这所教堂拆掉后准备建一所新的大的。He walked into the hospital through a side entrance.他从一个侧门进了医院。名词有相同用法的有：bed，class，table，town，比较：I used to go to bed at 11.过去我通常11点上床睡觉。He is such a sound sleeper that you wouldnt wake him up even if you remove the bed.他睡得很香，通常是即便你把床挪走，也不可能弄醒他。Class begins at 8 in
37、 the morning.早上8点钟开始上课。There are twenty students in the class.这个班有20名学生。乐器前通常加the，但是当我们谈论某人演奏某种特殊的乐器的能力时，则不加the：play the piano/violin/guitar/cello,etc. 体育项目目前不加the：play basketball/volleyball/tennis/football,etc.一些常表示一件东西或一个人的名词，如果指特殊的系统或设施时，可用the：The telephone is developing fast in that area.在那个地方，电
38、话发展的很快。Ring for the taxi if its raining.如果下雨，就请打电话叫辆出租车。You may dial 0 for the operator if you have any questions.如果你有问题，请拨0找接线员。交通工具如由by引导，前不用冠词：by car/bus/train/bicycle,etc.当时间意义为季节、某一时刻或某一段时间时，冠词的用法也不一样，季节通常不加the，特殊情况除外： Why dont you visit Scotland in summer？你为什么不在夏天去苏格兰呢？The summer of 1995 was s
39、o hot in Britain that every body was complaining there.在英国，1995年的夏天非常热，那里的每一个人都在抱怨。通常说来，当指一段时间而不是某一时刻时，用定冠词：at dawn破晓时at daybreak拂晓at sunrise日出时in the morning上午有些情况下，the和at不能同时存在。at一般用来表示某一时刻；而in(还有其他介词，如during，for，等)用来表示一段时间，有时需加冠词，如：Some animals sleep during the day and work during the night.一些动物白
40、天睡觉，夜里觅食。但是这种用法表示的不明确，很多情况下意义混乱。可数名词复数用于表示一般意义时，不用定冠词：Pandas are rare animals.(类指)熊猫是珍奇动物。The tamer worked very hard before he was able to make friends with the pandas.(特指)训兽员工作非常努力才得以和这些熊猫交上朋友。 冠词用在不可数名词前，其规律和可数名词复数一样，例如：定冠词通常表示特指：Salt is an essential ingredient in all kinds of food.(类指)在所有食物中，盐是最基
41、本的成分Would you pass me the salt？(特指)请您把盐递给我，好吗？The desk is made of mahogany.(类指)这张桌子是红木的。The desk is made of the mahogany from Thailand.(特指)这张桌子是泰国红木的。一般情况下，专有名词不用定冠词，但是也有特殊情况，包括：(1)以复数形式出现的人名指一家：the Johnsons约翰一家the Smiths史密斯一家the Blacks布赖克一家(2)海洋、河流、运河、山脉和专有地理名词：the Baltic波罗的海the Mediterranean地中海the
42、 Pacific太平洋the Nile尼罗河the Thames泰晤士河the Suez Canal苏伊士运河the Panama Canal巴拿马运河the Grand Canal大运河the Himalayas喜马拉雅山脉the Rockies落基山脉(3)有普通名词组成的组织的名称：the Peoples Republic of China中华人民共和国the United States of America/the U.S.A.美利坚合众国the Security Council安全理事会the State Department国务院 (4)宾馆、饭店、剧院、电影院、博物馆、展览馆等的
43、名字：the Hongkong Hilton香港希尔顿the Royal Opera House皇家歌剧院the Victorian Station维多利亚车站the British Museum英国博物馆the National Galleries 国家美术馆the University of Cambridge(也可以为Cambridge University)剑桥大学(5)有限定词的专有名词：the 21stcentury China 21世纪的中国the London in Dickensnovels狄更斯小说中的伦敦the France in the hands of the Ger
44、man invaders在德国入侵者控制下的法国the young Shakespeare who had not yet reached the maturity of the author of The Tempest还没有达到暴风雨的作者那么成熟的年轻的莎士比亚(6)作家的著作，或某一品牌的产品： Why dont you hang the Picasso on that wall？你为什么不把毕加索的画挂在墙上？The Kodak and the Fuji would make no difference to me.对我来讲，柯达和富士没有什么不同。I dont think the
45、Taurus is a better car than the Buick.我认为Taurus牌的汽车比Buick牌的好。在使用冠词时，也有一些特殊的用法the+一个形容词，这个形容词是名词词组的中心词，一般指的人是特殊类型的(the poor，the rich，the old，the young等)，特殊特性的(the beautiful，the ugly，the unusual等)，或作为有某一国家国籍的人(the English，the Chinese，the French等)。二、动词的虚拟语气三、动词的一些用法四、形容词的比较用法五、介词的用法Part clauses(句子)一、附加
46、疑问句疑问句的第四大类为附加疑问句或称为反意疑问句，附加疑问句除其独有的句法结构外，其语义也很复杂。 1.形式与意义附加疑问句由陈述句加简短附加问句构成，用以要求对方证实所陈述之事。附加疑问句的基本形式为：肯定陈述句加简略否定问句或否定陈述句加简略肯定问句。一般说来，陈述句表示说话人的假设，可根据陈述句的形式用肯定或否定形式，附加部分要求听者回答，在形式上，附加疑问句有四种：Youre listening，arent you？你在听，对吗？(肯定句+否定附加部分)Youre not listening，are you？你没在听，对吗？(否定句+肯定附加部分)Youre listening，are you？你在听，对吗？(肯定句+肯定附加部分)Youre not listening，arent you？你没在听，对吗？(否定句+否定附加部分)例句和比和常见，后两个句子常表示不信任、讽刺、惊奇等。每个句子可用两种不同形式表示，即：附加部分可用升调或降调。用升调时表示说话人对听者回答的中性期望并请听者来证实陈述句中问题的真实性。因此，在功能上近似一般疑问句。但如果附加部分用降调，则表示说话者对所述内容较有把握，期待对方同意。在功能上近似感叹句。2
