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1、Business Communication,Revision,In this class,students will learn:Main terms.Structure of some genres in textbook.,Objectives,章节设计,具体写作体裁的每一章节一般分为四个部分：1.Introduction 1.1Definition2.Classification3.Genre Features 3.1Communicative Purposes 3.2 Linguistic Features 3.3 Structural Features4.Writing Techn
2、iques,Terms,Chapter 1,Fundamentals of Business Communication,Communication is an exchange of messages between individuals for the purpose of creating or influencing the meaning that others assign to events.(p.4)Key points:exchange of messages（沟通的实质：交流信息）creating or influencing（沟通的目的：相互影响和融合）,The Pro
3、cess of Communication(9 elements),Senders（信息发送者）(P5),Participants in the communication process who communicate messages to an audience are called senders.,Message（信息）(P5),A message is the written,oral,or nonverbal communication that sender transmits to an audience.,Encoding（编码）(P 6),The activity of
4、the sender choosing certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message is called encoding.,Channel（渠道、媒介）,Channel is the medium through which the message sender the message receiver communicate.,Decoding（解码）,The activity of the receiver attaching meaning to the words or symbols that t
5、he sender sends is called decoding.,Receivers are the audience to whom messages are directed.,Receivers（信息接收者）(P6),Feedback（信息反馈）,Feedback consists of messagesverbal and nonverbalthat convey a reaction to the communicators message.,Noise（干扰因素）,It refers to all the factors that interfere with the exc
6、hange of messages.Internal noiseExternal noise(最典型)Semantic noise,Context,The communication context refers to the situation in which communication takes place and to every factor affecting its transmission.Physical contextSocial contextInterpersonal context,The Flow of Communication(P8),Communicatio
7、n and Culture,High-context cultureand Low-context culture,Edward T.Hall,High-context cultures prefer to use high-context messages in which most of the meaning is either implied by the physical setting or presumed to be part of the individuals internalized belief,values,and norms;very little is provi
8、ded in the coded,explicit,transmitted part of the message.,High-context culture,P 10,Low-context cultures prefer to use low-context messages,in which the majority of the information is vested in the explicit code.,Low-context culture,Chapter 2,Contrastive Rhetoric in Business Communication（对比修辞学）,Co
9、ntrastive Rhetoric 对比修辞学(P16),contrastive rhetoric is an area of research in second-language acquisition that identifies problems in composition encountered by second-language writers and,by referring to the rhetorical strategies of the first language,attempts to explain them.It is believed that the
10、 linguistic and rhetorical conventions of the first language interfere with writing in the second language.对比修辞学是第二语言习得研究中的新领域,其主要研究范围是探讨第二语言学习者的学术写作问题,并借鉴母语修辞策略对第二语言学术写作问题进行解释。并认为第一语言的语言学和修辞学特点会影响第二语言的写作。,Culture is the way we do things around here,and it is how people think,feel,and act.,Culture,(
11、P17),Language,as we know,varies with culture,anddiffers among nations and geographic locations.,Language,Rhetoric is the way we put together language to affect an audience,and each audience has certain expectations of rhetorical structure based on the traditional forms of rhetoric in their culture.,
12、Rhetoric,Stereotype 文化定势（P18）not shown in textbook,Stereotypes:They refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership.（文化定势：文化定势指基于明显的或受到认可的群体身份，对目标群体中的个体成员所持有的正面或反面的判断。）,Power distance（权力距离）not shown in textbook,Power distance：is the
13、 extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally.（权力距离是指机构或组织中权利较小的成员对权利被不平等分配的接受程度）。,Chapter 3,Management and Organizational Structure,Management 管理（P 28）,Management is defined as the process of administering and coordinating re
14、sources effectively,efficiently,and in an effort to achieve the goals of the organization.管理（management）:一个协调工作活动的过程，以便能够有效率和有效果地同别人一起或通过别人实现组织的目标。（包含两部分：过程（计划、组织、领导和控制）；协调其他人的工作）,Efficiency 效率/Effectiveness 效果,Efficiency is achieved by using the fewest inputs(such as people and money)to generate a
15、given output.效率（efficiency）：以尽可能少的投入获得尽可能多的产出。Effectiveness is achieved when the organization pursues appropriate goals.效果（effectiveness）：通常是指“做正确的事”，即所从事的工作和活动有助于达到其目标。,Process of Management 管理过程（P 28）,Planning involves setting goals and defining the actions necessary to achieve those goals.计划（plan
16、ning）：包括定义目标，制定战略以获取目标，以及制定计划和协调活动的过程。Organizing involves determining the tasks to be done,who will do them,and how those tasks will be managed and coordinate.组织（organizing）：安排工作以实现组织目标。包括决定应该从事哪些任务，应该由谁来从事这些任务，这些任务怎么分类和归集，谁向谁报告，以及在哪一级作出决策的过程。,Leading refers to the managers must also be capable of l
17、eading the members of their work group toward the accomplishment of the organizations goals.领导（leading）：管理者具备能够领导团队完成组织目标的能力。Managers must monitor the performance of their organizations,as well as their progress in implementing strategic and operational plans.控制（controlling）：监控、比较、纠正的过程。,Levels of m
18、anagement（P30）,基层管理者（first-line managers）：Supervise the individuals who are directly responsible for producing the organizations product or delivering it service.最低层的管理人员，他们管理着非管理雇员所从事的工作，这些工作是生产和提供组织的产品的工作，通常称为主管，也可以称为生产线线长或工长；中层管理者（middle managers）：supervise first-line managers or staff department
19、.They are responsible for the firms short-term decisions.包括所有处于基层和高层之间各个管理层次的管理者，这些管理者管理着基层管理者，他们可能具有部门经理、项目主管、工厂厂长，或者事业部经理的头衔；高层管理者（top managers）:make decisions regarding the firms long-run objectives.他们承担着制定广泛的组织决策、为整个组织制定计划和目标的责任。典型头衔是执行副总裁、总裁、管理董事、首席运营官、首席执行官或者董事会主席。,Definition of Organizing（P 3
20、1）,Organizing refers to the process of determining the tasks to be done,who will do them,and how those tasks will be managed and coordinated.组织：安排工作以实现组织目标的过程。包括决定应该从事哪些任务，应该由谁来从事这些任务，这些任务怎么分类和归集，谁向谁报告，以及在哪一级作出决策的过程。,Job Design 工作设计（P32）,Job design or work arrangement(or rearrangement)aimed at reduc
21、ing or overcoming job dissatisfaction and employee alienation arising from repetitive and mechanistic tasks.作设计(Job design)是为减少或克服员工由于重复性或机械工作所产生的不满或疏离感而做的工作安排活重新安排整理。,Organizational Structure组织结构,Organizational Structure refers to the primary reporting relationships that exist within an organizatio
22、n.组织结构(Organizational Structure)是指组织内部的主要报告关系。是表明组织各部分排列顺序、空间位置、聚散状态、联系方式以及各要素之间相互关系的一种模式，是整个管理系统的“框架”,Chain of Command 命令链（P 33）,Chain of command can be defined briefly as the structure of decision-making responsibilities from the higher levels of authority to the lower levels命令链(chain of command):
23、从高权力阶层到低权力阶层的决策责任的结构。,Span of Control(控制跨度),Span of control refers to the member of employees that report a single manager.控制跨度(span of control)：向单一管理者回报的员工的数量。,Line and Staff（运行与辅助人员）（P 34）,Line personnel are directly involved in delivering the product or service of the organization.Line personnel（
24、运行人员）直接参与产品的组织和生产，他们的决策直接营销的产品的产量。Staff personnel are not part of the product or service delivery system chain of command,but rather provide support to line personnel.Staff personnel（辅助人员）：不直接参与产品的生产，但为直接生产提够有效支持。,Chapter 4,Business Meetings,Meeting 会议（P38）,Meetings are a type of theatre where manag
25、ers observe and evaluate the performance and progress of subordinates(管理者评介下属的工作绩效以及进展的场所）.,2.Types of Meetings,To Develop New Ideas,To Make Decisions,To Delegate Work,To Collaborate,Types of Meetings,To Inform,To Persuade Others,To Inform 通知型会议Use a meeting to inform when clarifying written informa
26、tion participants have received previously.This type of meeting also can be used to present new information.To Develop New Ideas 探讨型会议At this meeting,participants suggest new ideas in an open,democratic atmosphere.It also develops new procedures,programs,and so forth.To Make Decisions 决策型会议Decision-
27、making meetings bring people and companies together to debate an issue,reconcile conflicting views,and make a decision.,To Delegate Work 委派工作型会议Meetings to delegate are held to assign tasks to people or groups,who are then responsible for completing those tasks.It is necessary to hold a delegating m
28、eeting to clarify specific details.Meetings to delegate often are followed by informational and decision-making meetings.To Collaborate合作型会议Collaborative meetings are sessions in which participants work together,to organize complex memos,letters,or reports.Collaborative efforts succeed only if peopl
29、e work together as a team.To Persuade Others 说服型会议Persuasive meetings involve oral presentations to achieve a group consensus and support for a course of action.For example,a persuasive meeting may present the merits of specific electronic product or build enthusiasm for purchasing the product.,The
30、Process of Meeting,Planning a Meeting,Conducting the Meeting,Close the Meeting,Chapter 5,Fundamentals of Business Writing,Identify Your Purpose（P 48）,General purposesTo inform To persuade To collaborate（合作）Specific purposeThe outcome you are seeking,P 49,Direct Plan（直接式）Low-context culturesThe U.S.,
31、Canada,Australia,Britain,New Zealand and Northern Europe.Indirect Plan（间接式High-context culturesAsia,Latin America,Africa and Middle East.,Writing Routine and Good-News Messages（P 50）,The Direct Approach,Main IdeaStep 1,Details and ExplanationsStep 2,Future-oriented CloseStep 3,Flow of the Message,Su
32、bstance of the Message,The Indirect Approach,OtherPrioritiesStep 1,Main IdeaStep 2,CourteousCloseStep 3,Flow of the Message,Substance of the Message,Writing Bad-News Messages（P 51）,Writing Persuasive Messages（P 52）,Attention（引起注意）Interest（兴趣）Desire（需求）Action（行动）,Chapter 6,Note-taking,Note-taking 记笔记
33、（P58）,Note-taking is the practice of recording information captured from a transient(短暂的）source,such as an oral discussion at a meeting,or a lecture.,Genre Features of Note-taking（P 60）,Linguistic FeaturesWrite the definition of the terms but dont use the authors words,use your own.Abbreviate wherev
34、er possible.It does not have to be standard abbreviations,just any abbreviations that make sense to the note-taker.,Techniques for Taking Notes（P60）,The Cornell Method 科内尔法The Cornell method provides a systematic format for condensing and organizing notes without laborious recopying.The Outline Meth
35、od（提纲法）The information which is most general begins at the left with each more specific group of facts indented with spaces to the right.The Mapping Method（图示法）Mapping is a method that uses comprehension/concentration skills and which relate each fact or idea to every other fact or idea.Mapping is a
36、 graphic representation of the content of a meeting.,The Charting Method(列表法)If the format is distinct(such as chronological),you may set up your paper by drawing columns and labeling appropriate headings in a table.The Sentence Method（截句法）Write every new thought,fact or topic on a separate line,num
37、bering as you progress.It is used when the meeting is somewhat organized,but heavy with content,which comes first.,Chapter 7,Summary,Summary 摘要（P 72）,A summary is a short version of a longer text,and it gives only the main points.概要(summary)是一种对原始文献（或文章）的基本内容进行浓缩的短文。,Classification of Summaries,Desc
38、riptive Summary 描述型/说明型概要A descriptive summary is often referred to as a descriptive abstractInformative Summary 信息型概要（P 74）The informative summary tells what is in the work in a paragraph to several pages,depending on the length of the original.Evaluative Summary 评价型概要（P 75）it may be the purpose of
39、 the summary not only to report the gist of a piece of writing but also to comment on its accuracy,completeness,and usefulness.In the evaluative summary you include your own reactions,your thoughts and feelings,along with a report on the main facts in the material.,Structural Features of Summaries（P
40、 77）,The format most often includes:a title,paragraphs,authors name and a date.Short sentences are normally required,but numbered points and/or other graphic devices may also be used.The length of a summary varies according to its purpose;however,it should generally be no more than one-fourth the le
41、ngth of the original.,Chapter 8,Graphs,Graphs 图表/图解（P84）,Graphs are diagrams that present numerical data in visual form in order to show trends,movements,distributions,and cycles.,Types of Graphs,Line graphs(折线图)are used to track changes over short and long periods of time.Line graphs can also be us
42、ed to compare changes over the same period of time for more than one groupPie charts(饼状图)can be used to compare parts of a whole.They do not show changes over time.In pie charts,the percentages of a whole can be shown and represented at a set point in time.Unlike bar graphs and line graphs,pie chart
43、s do not show changes over time.,Bar graphs(柱状图)are used to compare things between different groups or to track changes over time.However,when trying to measure change over time,bar graphs are best when the changes are bigger.Area graphs(面积曲线图)are very similar to line graphs.They can be used to trac
44、k changes over time for one or more groups.,X-Y Plot(X-Y坐标图、直角坐标曲线图）are used to determine relationships between two different things.The x-axis is used to measure one event(or variable)and the y-axis is to measure the other.,Types of Data（P85）,The data are ordered by the time and are referred to as
45、time series data(时间序列数据).时间序列数据是指隔一定时间间隔记录的数据，它着眼于研究对象在一定时间内的变化，寻找空间(对象)历时发展的规律。,Data that is characterized by individual units.These units might refer to people,companies or countries.With such cross-sectional data(横截面数据),the ordering of the data typically does not matter(unlike time series data).横
46、截面数据是指在某一时点收集的不同对象的数据，可指在同一时间点或近似同一时间点上收集的数据合。它对应同一时点上不同空间（对象）所组成的一组数据集合，研究的是某一时点上的某种经济现象，突出空间（对象）的差异,Some data sets will have both a time series and a cross-sectional component.This data is referred to as panel data(面板数据).面板数据有时间和截面两个维度，是截面数据与时间序列综合起来的一种数据资源。其有时间序列和截面两个维度，当这类数据按两个维度排列时，是排在一个平面上，与只有
47、一个维度的数据排在一条线上有着明显的不同，整个表格像是一个面板,所以把panel data译作“面板数据”。,举例：如：城市名：北京、上海、重庆、天津的GDP分别为10、11、9、8（单位亿元）。这就是截面数据，在一个时间点处切开，看各个城市的不同就是截面数据。如：2000、2001、2002、2003、2004各年的北京市GDP分别为8、9、10、11、12（单位亿元）。这就是时间序列，选一个城市，看各个样本时间点的不同就是时间序列。如：2000、2001、2002、2003、2004各年中国所有直辖市的GDP分别为：北京市分别为8、9、10、11、12；上海市分别为9、10、11、12、1
48、3；天津市分别为5、6、7、8、9；重庆市分别为7、8、9、10、11（单位亿元）。这就是面板数据。,Such data arise often in economics when choices are involved(e.g.the choice to buy or not buy a product,to take public transport or a private car,to join or not to join a club).These answers are referred to as qualitative data(定性数据).定性数据也称品质数据，它说明的是
49、事物的品质特征，不能用有一个统一单位的数值来表示。如:男，女；优秀、良好、及格。,（P85）,The macroeconomists data on sales will have a number corresponding to each firm surveyed;for example,the last months sales in the first company surveyed were RMB 20,000.This is referred to as quantitative data(定量数据).定量数据也称数量数据，它说明的是事物的数量特征，能够用有一个统一单位的数值
50、（比如，身高可以用cm，m或英寸等，体重可以用kg或磅，温度可以用或K，声音的频率可以用赫兹或弧度/秒；这里的“统一单位”是指对不同的变量值都可以使用这个单位，而不是一定要使用这个单位）表示。,Structural Features of Graphs:（P 87）,The basic components in the graph are title,legend,sources,information and data.The title（标题）offers a short explanation of what is in your graph.This helps the reader
