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1、Contact me Yanling Tang,Foreign Studies CollegeHunan Normal University36 Lushan Road,Changsha City,Hunan 410081The Peoples Republic of China(CHINA),An Introduction to PragmaticsA Course for B.A.StudentsInstructor:Prof.Tang Yanling唐燕玲,Speech Acts,Main contents,1.Performatives2.Three Types of Acts 3.C
2、lassification of Illocutionary Acts4.Indirect Speech Act Theory,Part One:Performatives,1)Backgrounds for the proposing of the performative theory2)Constative vs.Performative3)Performative verbs4)Characteristics of performatives5)How to distinguish performatives and constatives,1)Backgrounds for the
3、proposing of the performative theory,In the 40s and 50s,it was commonly held that the study of language should be concerned only with the truth-conditional meaning of the proposition,and not with the situations of the utterance.,However,it had been observed that sometimes people are using words to d
4、o things.And in such cases,what is of more importance is not the truth conditional-meaning,but the action of doing things.,Austin made the primary distinction between two types of utterances:Constative:表述句 Performative：施为句,2)Constative vs.Performative,Constatives:describing a portion of some facts o
5、r states of affairs;aiming at referring something or expressing something.(True or False)e.g.I go to the park every Sunday.Performatives:saying itself accomplishing a certain action,affecting,or changing the world in some way;to do sth.e.g.I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.,Performatives are sentence
6、s used to perform such functions as promising,naming,warning,inviting,requesting,ordering and asking etc.More examples on performatives:,“I declare the meeting open.”-as uttered in an open ceremony.,Teacher:Class begins!,Boss:You are fired!,I name this tiger George Bush.,“I give and bequeath the shi
7、p to my brother.”-as occurring in a will.,“I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”-as uttered when making a bet.,I promise to love you forever!,3)Performative verbs,Name,apologize,warn,bet,bequeath,declare,promise,swear,beg,order,advise,congratulate,welcome,nominate.,4)Characteristics of performa
8、tives,A.they are performed in saying something;B.they cannot be performed unless language is used;C.they have connected with their performative verbs,the occurrence of which as a main verb in a present tense,indicative,active,a first person sentence makes explicit what act speaker intends to be perf
9、orming in uttering the sentence.,5)How to distinguish performatives and constatives,1.Conditions:true or false(constative)felicity conditions(合适条件）2.grammatical criterion:(performative)first person singular sub.simple present tense indicative mood active voice3.lexical criterion:“state”(constative)“
10、hereby”(performative),It has been noted that some statives can also be viewed as performatives.E.g.A dog is watching you.=I tell you that a dog is watching you.,哇！,All sentences can be used to do things.Saying something can be understood as doing something.,Part Two:Three Types of Acts,In How to Do
11、Things with Words,Austin holds that there are three senses in which saying something can be understood as doing something.Locutionary Act Illocutionary ActPerlocutionary Act,(1)an act of producing linguistic units.(2)the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by particular words an
12、d structures which the utterance contains.-inherent meaning of a sentence(语义学研究的对象）,Locutionary Act(表述性言语行为（以言行事）/发话行为/言中行为）,Illocutionary forceSpeakers meaning or intentionContextual meaningExtra-meaning,Illocutionary Act施为性言语行为（以言指事）/言外行为/行事行为言外之意,The act performed through,by means of a locutionar
13、y act.The hearers interpretations or reactions,Perlocutionary Act成事性言语行为（以言成事）/言后行为/取效行为,Example Shoot it！,Locutionary act(X):In Shoot it！=the meaning of the verb shoot+the meaning of the pronunciation it.,Illocutionary act(Y):Using a sentence to perform a function.the act performed in saying someth
14、ingIn saying X,I was doing Y.In saying Shoot it,I was ordering the three soldiers to shoot at the target.,Perlocutionary Act(Z):The results or effects that are brought about by saying something.the act performed by saying somethingBy saying X,and doing Y,I did Z.By saying Shoot it,and thus ordering
15、the three soldiers to shoot at the target,I made it possible for the target to be shot by the three soldiers.,X=I(the dog)love you(the cat).Y=showing love Z=the cats reaction,I love you.,A:我唐老鸭今天过生日，请你去吃蛋糕喔。B:好啊！X=(唐老鸭)请你(小鸭B)去吃蛋糕 Y=邀请 Z=小鸭B接受邀请,Examples:,(1)Good Morning!(2)It is cold here!(3)-That
16、is the phone.-Im in the bathroom.-Okay.,Illocutionary Act,Part three:Classification of Illocutionary Acts,According to J.Austin,illocutionary speech acts fall into certain types in terms of their illocutionary force,as listed below:,Representatives/assertives 陈述类（state,describe,swear,report)Directiv
17、es指令类（ask,order,request,command,advise)Commissives 承诺类(promise,bet)Expressives 表达(thank,congratulate,apologize,welcome,deplore)Declaratives:宣告类(name,declare,nominate,point,christen),To commit the speaker to somethings being the case,to the truth of what has been said.For example:stating,believing,sw
18、earing and making hypothesis.e.g.I swear I have never seen the man before.I state the earth is a globe,Assertives,/Representatives,They are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.Typical examples:Inviting,suggesting,requesting,warning,threatening,ordering,advising and so on.Open t
19、he door!(ordering)Your money or your life?(threatening),Directives,Commit to do something.The point of them is to commit the speaker himself to some future actions.Typical examples:Promising,vowing,undertaking e.g I will bring th book without fail I promise to come.,Commissives,To express in the utt
20、erance the specificpsychological state of the speaker.Typical examples:Apologizing,thanking,welcoming,deploring,Congratulatinge.g.I am sorry for the mess I have made.It really kind of you to have thought of me.,Expressives,They bring about the correspondence between what is said and realityWords like name,declare,point,christen,appoint are often used in declarationse.g.I name this ship Nancy.I declare the meeting open.I appoint you Chairman of the committee I fire you.,Declaratives,Indirect Speech Act Theory,Thank you!,
