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1、Chapter III.Western Translation Studies in Modern Times,1.Introduction2.The Classical Revival of the 19th Century2.1 Water Benjamin(1892-1940)2.2 Willard Van Orman Quine(1908-2000)2.3 Roman Jakobson(1896-1982)2.3.1 Jakobson 3 Descriptions of Translation:2.4 Jean-Paul Vinay(1910-1999)and Jean Darbeln
2、et(1904-1990)3.The Heroic Age(1950s-70s)3.1 Eugene Nida(1914-)3.1.1 Eugene Nidas Three-stage System of Translation3.2 James Holmes(1924-1986)and His Map of Translation Studies,4.Descriptive Translation Studies4.1 Holmes4.1.1 The general branch of Holmess framework4.1.2 The applied branch of Holmess
3、framework 4.1.3 Holmess Translation Policy4.2 Jeremy Munday 5 Development since 1970s,1.Introduction,As translation historian claim,the classical revival of the 19th century and the emphasis on technical accuracy,combined with a spirit of exclusivism among the intelligentsia,conspired to make the 19
4、th century pedantic in its attitude towards translation.The 20th century witnessed a radical change in Western translation studies.In fact,5 developments have had a significant effect on the theory and practice of translation during the 20th century:,1)Rapid development of structural linguistics;2)A
5、pplication of methods in structural linguistics to deal with special problems of translation;3)The United Bible societies,which conducted international conference of translation and began publishing a quarterly journal(Bible Translation),for which they were in close contact with linguistics;4)Public
6、ation of Babel,which helps translators get to know about new tools and aids and become aware of the changing conditions;5)The development of various projects on machine translation which has progressed through different phases and provided us with important insights into semantic theory and of struc
7、tural design.,2.The Representatives in the Classical Revival of the 19th Century,2.1 Water Benjamin(1892-1940)He is now generally recognized as one of the most original and influential thinkers of the 20th century.In his essay“The task of the translator”(1923),he said:“a translation participates in
8、the afterlife of the ST,enacting an interpretation that is informed by a history of reception.This interpretation does more than transmit messages;it recreates the values that produced the ST over time.And insofar as the linguistic differences of this text are signaled in the TL,they ultimately conv
9、ey a philosophical concept,“pure language”,a sense of how the“mutually exclusive”differences among languages coexist with“complementary”intentions to communicate and to refer,intentions that are derailed by the differences.”For Benjamin,translation differs a Utopian vision of linguistic“harmony”.,2.
10、2 Willard Van Orman Quine(1908-2000),Born in Akron,Ohio,he began his philosophical studies at Oberlin College in his native state.Later he studied the foundations of mathematical logic with Alfred Whitehead at Harford University,where Quine himself became professor of philosophy in 1936.During 1940s
11、-50s,disciplinary trends of translation studies vary widely,ranging between the extremes of philosophical skepticism and practical optimism.The skeptical extreme in Anglo-American analytical philosophy is occupied by Quines concept of radical translation.the optimistic extreme in translation studies
12、 is occupied by linguistic analysis.The dominant issue is translatability by analyzing specific translation problems and describing the methods that translators have developed to solve them.,2.3 Roman Jakobson(1896-1982),A Russian-American linguist,a leading authority on Slavic languages,he is the p
13、rincipal founder of Prague school of structural linguistics and of phonology.His major publications include Preliminaries to Speech Analysis(with G.Fant and M.Halle,1952)and Fundamentals of Language(1956).,2.3.1 Jakobsons 3 Descriptions of Translation:,1)Intralingual translation/rewording2)Interling
14、ual translation/translation proper3)Intersemiotic translation/transmutationJakobson follows the relation set out by Saussure between the signifier and the signified.From a linguistic and semiotic angle,he approaches the problem of equivalence with the following,now famous,definition:equivalence in d
15、ifference is the cardinal problem of language and the critical concern of linguistics.For him,the problem of meaning and equivalence focuses on differences in the structure and terminology of languages rather than on any inability of one language to render a message that has been written in another
16、verbal language.,2.4 Jean-Paul Vinay(1910-1999)and Jean Darbelnet(1904-1990),Jean-Paul Vinay was born in Paris and studied English at the Sorbonne before obtaining an MA in Phonetics and Philology from the University of London I 1937.then he moved to Canada in 1946 as a professor and head of the dep
17、.of the Linguistics and Translation,and in 1967 he moved to the University of Victoria in British Columbia.And Jean Darbelnet was born in Paris,he taught French at Harford before moving to Canada in 1940,where he taught at McGill University until 1946,setting up a three-year program of translation.T
18、heir book Stylistique comparee du francais et de langlais(1958)is a landmark work not particularly because of its contribution to comparative linguistics but because of what it expressed in the subtitle:methode de trduction,claiming that a linguistic comparison of languages could in itself found a t
19、ranslation method.The work thus gave rise to a taxonomic mode of translation theory ostensibly aimed at helping translators to translate.,By approaching French-English translation from the field of comparative stylistics,they provide a theoretical basis for a variety of translation methods currently
20、 in use.Their descriptions of translation methods involve some reduction of linguistic and cultural differences to empiricist semantics:Equivalence of messages ultimately relies upon an identity of situations,where“situations”indicates an undefined“reality”.But they also encourage the translator to
21、think of meaning as a cultural construction and to see a close connection between,linguistic procedures and“metalinguistic information”,namely“the current state of literature,science,politics etc.of both language communities.”The enormous practical and pedagogical value of Vinay and Darbelnets work
22、overcomes any philosophical qualms about translatability and distracts attention away from their conservative prescriptions about language use in translation.,3.The Heroic Age(1950s-70s),The 3 decades of 1950s-70s witnessed the linguistic turn in translation studies.Fawcett calls this linguistic ori
23、entation of translation studies as“the heroic age”.After the Second World War,translation theory was profoundly influenced by Noam Chomskys concepts of deep structure and surface structure,and the first steps in machine translation.As Mary Snell-Hornby(1988:41)succinctly explains“translation is a re
24、cording or change of surface structure in representation of the deep structure underlying it.”Chomskys theories strongly influenced the science of translating as understood during the 1960s.,3.1 Eugene Nida(1914-),Nida received his BA in 1936 from the University of California at Los Angeles.Having e
25、arned his degree in Greek,he enrolled i the Summer Institute of Linguistics(SIL).Then he pursued a MA in Greek New Testament at the University of Southern California.In 1941,he began a PhD in Linguistics at the University of Michigan and completed it in 2 years.In 1943,he was ordained in the Norther
26、n Baptist Convertion,and joined the staff of the American Bible Society(ABS)as a linguist.Nidas theory of translation developed from his own practical work in the 1940s onwards when he wad translating and,organizing the translation of the Bible.His theory takes concrete form in two major works in th
27、e 1960s:Toward a Science of Translating(1964)and The Theory and Practice of Translation(co-authored with Tabre,1969).Nida attempts to move translation into a more scientific era by incorporating recent work in linguistics,and his more systematic approach borrows theoretical concepts and terminology
28、both from semantics and pragmatics and from Noam Chomskys theory of TG(transformation-generative)grammar.Nida describes various scientific approaches to meaning related to work that have been carried out by theorists in,semantics and pragmatics.A series of techniques,adapted from work in linguistics
29、,are presented as an aid for the translator in determining the meaning of different linguistic items.Techniques to determine referential and emotive meaning focus on analyzing the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields.These include hierarchical structuring an
30、d componential analysis.Another technique is semantic structure analysis,the central idea of which is to encourage the trainee translator to realize that the sense of a complex semantic term varies and most particularly is conditioned by its context.,For Nida,the model of deep structure and surface
31、structure provides the translator with a technique for decoding the ST and a procedure for encoding the TT(Nida,1964:60),although he reverses Chomskys model when analyzing the St;to be specific,the surface structure of the ST is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure,which are transf
32、erred in the translation process and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the TT.(see figure 1.),Figure 1:Eugene Nidas Three-stage System of Translation,3.1.1 Eugene Nidas Three-stage System of Translation,Nida and Tabers own description of the process empha
33、sizes the scientific and practical advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems.Just as kernel sentences are the most basic structures out of which language builds its elaborate surface structures.
34、Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages:1)literal transfer 2)minimal transfer 3)literary transfer,Nidas move toward a science of translation has proved to be especially influential in Ger
35、many,where the common term for translation studies in Ubersetzungssenschaft(Translatology).Among the most prominent German scholars in the translation science field during the 1970s and 1980s are Wolfram Wilss,and those from the then German Democratic Republic,the Leipzig School,including Otto Kade
36、and Albert Newbert.,3.2 James Holmes(1924-1986)and His Map of Translation Studies,James Holmes,American scholar,poet,translator and one of the founding fathers of Translation Studies as an academic discipline,was born and raised on a farm in central Iowa,USA,who was educated at William Penn College,
37、Haveford,and Brown University.In 1949,he went to Holland as a Fulbright exchange teacher to teach English at an International Quaker College.The last three decades of the 20th century witnessed a great change in translation studies.And the field of Translation Studies was decisively defined by James
38、 Holmes,in his seminal paper,entitled“The Name and Nature of Translation Studies”,which was originally,presented to the Third International Congress of Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972.Since then,research has been conducted with multi-disciplinary approaches in a more systematical fash
39、ion toward the formation of contemporary translation theory in its own right.In his paper,Holmes puts forward an overall framework,describing what translation studies covers.This framework has subsequently been presented by Gideon Toury as in figure 2.,Figure 2:James Holmes Map of Translation Studie
40、s,4.Descriptive Translation Studies,Descriptive Translation Studies(DTS)is mainly concerned with three aspects:1)Product-oriented DTS;which examines existing translations,involving the description or analysis of a single ST-TT pair or a comparative analysis of several TTs of the same ST(into one or
41、more TLs)2)Function-oriented DTS;which describes the function(of translation)in the recipient sociocultural situation.3)Process-oriented DTS.which is concerned with the psychology of translation,i.e.With trying to find out what happens in the mind of a translator.,4.1 Holmes,4.1.1 The General Branch
42、 of Holmess Framework 1)Medium-restricted theories(which are subdivisions according to translation by machine and humans,with further subdivisions according to whether the machine/computer is working alone or as an aid to the human translator,to whether the human translation is written or spoken and
43、 to whether spoken translation(interpreting)is consecutive or simultaneous);2)Area restricted theories(which are restricted to specific languages or groups of languages and/or cultures);3)Rank restricted theories(which are linguistic theories that have been restricted to a specific level of the word
44、 or sentence);,4)Text-type restricted theories(which focus on specific discourse types or genres,e.g.literary,business and technical translation);5)Time-restricted theories(which refer to theories and translations restricted according to specific periods);6)Problem-restricted theories(which refer to
45、 specific problems such as equivalence or to a wider question of whether universals of translated labguage exist).,4.1.2 The Applied Branch of Holmess Framework,The applied branch of Holmess framework concerns:1)Translators training(teaching methods,testing techniques,curriculum design);2)Translatio
46、n aids(dictionaries,grammars,information technology);3)Translation criticism(the evaluation of translations,including the marking of student translations and the reviews of published translations).,4.1.3 Holmess Translation Policy,Holmes also focused on the area of translation policy,where he sees t
47、he translation scholar advising o the place of translation in society,including what place,it should occupy in the language teaching and learning curriculum.,4.2 Jeremy Munday,Jeremy Munday，a senior lecturer in Spanish in Department of Linguistic，Cultural and Translation Studies and deputy director
48、of Center for Translation Studies(CTS),University of Surrey,UK，got his PhD at the University of Bradford,which he had been teaching there until he came to Surrey in 2000.His research interests are in DTS,style and ideology in translation,corpus-based translation studies history of literary translato
49、rs in the 20th century and interaction between the visual and written words in translation.His major publications include Introducing Translation Studies：theories and application（2001）and Translation：an advanced resource book(with BasilHatim,2004）.Munday points out that Holmes division is flexible e
50、nough to incorporate these technological developments”and expands the applied branch in Holmes map into Figure3.,Figure 3:Mundays expand applied branch of translation studies,According to Munday（2001：13-4),the crucial role played by Holmes paper is the mapping of the potential of translation studies
